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5722819

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wildfire%20suppression

Wildfire suppression

Wildfire suppression is a range of firefighting tactics used to suppress wildfires. Firefighting efforts in wild land areas require different techniques, equipment, and training from the more familiar structure fire fighting found in populated areas. Working in conjunction with specially designed aerial firefighting aircraft, these wildfire-trained crews suppress flames, construct fire lines, and extinguish flames and areas of heat to protect resources and natural wilderness. Wildfire suppression also addresses the issues of the wildland–urban interface, where populated areas border with wild land areas. In the United States and other countries, aggressive wildfire suppression aimed at minimizing fire has contributed to accumulation of fuel loads, increasing the risk of large, catastrophic fires. History Australia Wildland fire, known in Australia as bush fire, has played a major role in Australia due to arid conditions. Notable fire services tasked with wildfire suppression include NPWS (National Parks and Wildlife Service, NSW), the New South Wales Rural Fire Service, the South Australian Country Fire Service, the Western Australian Parks and Wildlife Service, the Victorian Department of Environment, Land, Water and Planning (DELWP), and the Country Fire Authority. Canada Canada contains approximately of forest land. Seventy-five percent of this is boreal forest, made up primarily of coniferous trees. More than 90 percent of Canadian forest land is publicly owned, and the provincial and territorial governments are responsible for fire-suppression activities. The Federal Canadian Interagency Forest Fire Centre (CIFFC) provides operational fire-control services and links to all provincial and territorial fire agencies. During a typical year there are over 9,000 forest fires in Canada, burning an average of 2.5 million hectares (ha) or . The number of fires and area burned can vary dramatically from year to year. Average suppression costs are $500 million to $1 billion annually. In Canada, two-thirds of all forest fires are caused by people, while lightning causes the remaining third. Despite this, lightning fires account for over 85 percent of the area burned in Canada, largely because many of the lightning-caused fires occur in remote, inaccessible areas. Currently about ninety percent of forest fires are fought. Generally fires near communities, industrial infrastructure, and forests with high commercial and recreation value are given high priority for suppression efforts. In remote areas and wilderness parks, fires may be left to burn as part of the natural ecological cycle. United States Indigenous communities embraced fire as an ally in preserving nature, but once populations began to grow across the U.S., wildfires started to trigger unprecedented destruction of property and sometimes resulted in massive death tolls. Greater impact on people's lives led to government intervention and changes to how wildfires were addressed. One of the first turning points for firefighting philosophies in the U.S. happened in October 1871, the year of the Great Chicago Fire. Six years removed from the Civil War, the Fire destroyed more than 17,000 buildings across the Windy City, upended thousands of lives and devastated their thriving business community, which did not fully recover until the World's Fair came to Chicago in 1893. The Great Chicago Fire left an indelible mark on the city, and much of its lasting impact came from the introduction of more sensible building codes. The same day as the Chicago Fire, a much larger, more deadly, but less-discussed fire occurred, which had a more significant influence on the federal government and its role in fire management. The Peshtigo Fire broke out on the morning of October 8, 1871. It burned for three days, and while estimates vary, the consensus is that it killed more than 1,200 people – making it the deadliest wildfire in American history to this day. In addition to the number of people killed, the fire burned more than 1.2 million acres of land and spread to nearby towns, where it caused even more damage. The entire town of Peshtigo was destroyed within an hour of the start of the fire. News of the historical destruction spread slowly. People soon learned of the Peshtigo Fire in addition to the Great Chicago Fire, as well as another fire in Michigan which occurred at the same time that had burned more than two million acres. As a result of the 1871 fire breakouts, the federal government saw that it needed to act. This led in 1876 to the creation of the Office of Special Agent in the U.S. Department of Agriculture to assess the quality and conditions of forests in the United States. As the forerunner of the U.S. Forest Service, this was the first time that wildfire management was placed under government purview. Objectives and risks Safety Protection of human life is first priority for firefighters. Since 1995, when arriving on a scene, a fire crew will establish safety zones and escape routes, verify communication is in place, and designate lookouts (known in the U.S. by the acronym LCES, for lookouts, communications, escape routes, safety zones). This allows the firefighters to engage a fire with options for a retreat should their current situation become unsafe. Although other safety zones should be designated, areas already burned generally provide a safe refuge from fire provided they have cooled sufficiently, are accessible, and have burned enough fuels so as to not reignite. Briefings may be done to inform new fire resources of hazards and other pertinent information. A great emphasis is placed on safety and preventing entrapment, a situation where escape from the fire is impossible. Prevention of this situation is reinforced with two training protocols, Ten Standard Firefighting Orders and Eighteen Situations That Shout Watch Out, which warn firefighters of potentially dangerous situations, developed in the aftermath of the Mann Gulch fire. As a last resort, many wildland firefighters carry a fire shelter. In this inescapable situation, the shelter will provide limited protection from radiant and convective heat, as well as superheated air. Entrapment within a fire shelter is called a burnover. In Australia, firefighters rarely carry fireshelters (commonly referred to as "Shake 'N' Bake" shelters); rather, training is given to locate natural shelters or use hand tools to create protection; or, in the instance of 'burnover' in a tanker or other fire appliance, 'fire overrun' training is used. Hazards beyond the fire are posed as well. A very small sample of these include: unstable/hazardous trees, animals, electrical cables, unexploded ordnance, hazardous materials, rolling and falling debris, and lightning. Personal safety is also vital to wildland firefighting. The proper use of PPE (personal protective equipment) and firefighting equipment will help minimise accidents. At the very minimum, wildland firefighters should have proper fire-retardant clothing (such as Nomex), protective headgear, wildland firefighting-specific boots, gloves, water for hydration, fire shelters, eye protection, and some form of communication (most commonly a radio). Resource protection Other resources are ranked according to importance and/or value. These include but are not limited to human health and safety, construction cost, ecological impacts, social and legal consequences and the costs of protection. Defendability is also considered, as more effort will need to be expended on saving a house with a wooden-shake roof than one with a tile roof, for example. Ecosystem changes While wildfire suppression serves human safety and resource protection, the lack of natural fires can be the cause of ecosystem changes, as can the size of fires when they do occur. Fire ecology is accordingly not as simple as many might assume. Across the global grassland and savanna ecosystems, fire suppression is frequently found to be a driver of woody encroachment. Organization Across the United States, wildfire suppression is administered by land management agencies including the U.S. Forest Service, Bureau of Land Management, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, National Park Service, the Bureau of Reclamation, the Army Corps of Engineers, and state departments of forestry. All of these groups contribute to the National Wildfire Coordinating Group and the National Interagency Fire Center. The National Interagency Fire Center hosts the National Interagency Coordination Center (NICC). NICC's primary responsibility is positioning and managing national resources (i.e. Hotshot Crews, smokejumpers, air tankers, incident management teams, National Caterers, mobile shower units, and command repeaters). NICC also serves as clearing house for the dispatch ordering system. Reporting to NICC are 10 Geographic Area Coordination Centers (Alaska, Great Basin, Northern Rockies, Rocky Mountains, Southern California, Northern California, Eastern, Southern, Southwest and Northwest). Under each GACC are several dispatch zones. Management Managing any number of resources over varying-size areas in often very rugged terrain is extremely challenging. An incident commander (IC) is charged with overall command of an incident. In the U.S., the Incident Command System designates this as being the first on scene providing they have sufficient training. The size of the fire, measured in acres or chains, as well as the complexity of the incident and threats to developed areas, will later dictate the class-level of IC required. Incident management teams aid on larger fire incidents to meet more complex priorities and objectives of the incident commander. It provides support staff to handle duties such as communication, fire behavior modeling, and map- and photo-interpretation. Again in the U.S., management coordination between fires is primarily done by the National Interagency Fire Center (NIFC). Specific agencies and different incident management teams may include a number of different individuals with various responsibilities and varying titles. A fire information officer (PIOF) generally provides fire-related information to the public, for example. Branch chiefs and division chiefs serve as management on branches and divisions, respectively, as the need for these divisions arise. Investigators may be called to ascertain the fire's cause. Prevention officers such as forest rangers may patrol their jurisdictional areas to teach fire prevention and prevent some human-caused fires from happening to begin with. Communication Information may be communicated on fires in many forms. Radios, vocals, visual signals such as flagging and mirrors, literature such as an IAP or incident action plan, whistles and mobile touch-screen computer terminals are some examples. The USFS Visual Signal Code system provides symbols used to communicate from ground to air, while aircraft may use wing tilting, motor gunning or circling to communicate air-to-ground. Radio communication is very typical for communication during a wildfire. This is due to the wide coverage provided and the ability to communicate in a one-to-many format. One of the most popular radio manufacturers for this application is Relm Wireless (also known as Bendix King and BK Radio). The company is based in Florida, U.S., and holds many contracts with various government entities. The other up-and-coming company entering this niche market is Midland Radio. Its U.S. headquarters is in the midwest (Kansas City, Missouri), and it manufacturers many radio models, including mobiles and portables. Tactics Operating in the U.S. within the context of fire use, firefighters may only suppress fire that has become uncontrollable. Conversely, fires or portions of a fire that have previously been engaged by firefighters may be treated as fire use situation and be left to burn. All fire suppression activities are based from an anchor point (such as lake, rock slide, road or other natural or artificial fire break). From an anchor point firefighters can work to contain a wild land fire without the fire outflanking them. Large fires often become extended campaigns. Incident command posts (ICPs) and other temporary fire camps are constructed to provide food, showers, and rest to fire crews. Weather conditions and fuel conditions are large factors in the decisions made on a fire. Within the U.S., the Energy Release Component (ERC) is a scale relating fuel energy potential to area. The Burning Index (BI) relates flame length to fire spread speed and temperature. The Haines Index (HI) tracks stability and humidity of air over a fire. The Keetch–Byram dought index relates fuels to how quickly they could ignite and to what percentage they should burn. The Lightning Activity Level (LAL) ranks lightning potential into six classes. Fuel models are specific fuel designations determined by energy burning potential. Placed into 13 classes, they range from "short grass" (model 1) to "logging slash" (model 13). Low-numbered models burn at lower intensities than those at the higher end. Direct attack Direct attack is any treatment applied directly to burning fuel such as wetting, smothering, or chemically quenching the fire, or by physically separating the burning from not burned fuel. This includes the work of urban and wildland fire engines, fire personnel and aircraft applying water or fire retardant directly to the burning fuel. For most agencies, the objective is to make a fireline around all fire meant to be suppressed. Indirect attack Preparatory suppression tactics used a distance away from the oncoming fire are considered indirect. Firelines may be built in this manner as well. Fuel reduction, indirect firelines, contingency firelines, backburning and wetting unburnt fuels are examples. This method may allow for more effective planning. It may allow for more ideally placed firelines in lighter fuels using natural barriers to fire and for safer firefighter working conditions in less smoke filled and cooler areas. However, it may also allow for more burned acreage, larger hotter fires, and the possibility of wasted time constructing unused firelines. Attempts to control wildfires may also include by controlling the area that it can spread to by creating control lines: boundaries that contain no combustible material. These may be constructed by physically removing combustible material with tools and equipment, or portions may be naturally occurring. Lines may also be created by backfiring: creating small, low-intensity fires using driptorches or flares. The resultant fires are extinguished by firefighters or, ideally, directed in such a way that they meet the main fire front, at which point both fires run out of flammable material and are thus extinguished. Additionally, the use of long-term fire retardants, fire-fighting foams, and superabsorbent polymer gels may be used. Such compounds reduce the flammability of materials by either blocking the fire physically or by initiating a chemical reaction that stops the fire. However, any method can fail in the face of erratic or high-intensity winds and changing weather. Changing winds may cause fires to change direction and miss control lines. High-intensity winds may cause jumping or spotting as burning embers are carried through the air over a fireline. Burning trees may fall and burning materials may roll across the line, effectively negating the barrier. Mop-up The threat of wildfires does not cease after the flames have passed, as smoldering heavy fuels may continue to burn unnoticed for days after flaming. It is during this phase that either the burn area exterior or the complete burn area of a fire is cooled so as to not reignite another fire. Rehabilitation Constructed firelines, breaks, safety zones and other items may damage soil systems, encouraging erosion from surface run-off and gully formation. The loss of plant life from the fire also contributes to erosion. Construction of waterbars, the addition of plants and debris to exposed soils and other measures help to reduce this. Fires at the wildland–urban interface Wildfires can pose risks to human settlement in three main scenarios. The first can happen at the classic wildland–urban interface, where urban or suburban development borders wild land. The second happens at the mixed wildland–urban interface, where homes or small communities are interspersed throughout a wild area, and the boundary between developed and non-developed land is undefined. The third occurs in the occluded wildland–urban interface, where pockets of wild land are enclosed within cities. Expansive urbanization and other human activity in areas adjacent to wildlands is a primary reason for the catastrophic structural losses experienced in wildfires. Continued development of wildland–urban interface firefighting measures and the rebuilding of structures destroyed by fires has been met with criticism. Communities such as Sydney and Melbourne in Australia have been built within highly flammable forest fuels. The city of Cape Town, South Africa, lies on the fringe of the Table Mountain National Park. In the western United States from the 1990s to 2007, over 8.5 million new homes were constructed on the wildland–urban interface. Fuel buildup can result in costly, devastating fires as more new houses and ranches are built adjacent to wilderness areas. However, the population growth in these fringe areas discourages the use of current fuel management techniques. Smoke from fires is an irritant and a pollutant. Attempts to thin out the fuel load may be met with opposition due to the desirability of forested areas. Wildland goals may be further resisted because of endangered species protections and habitat preservation. The ecological benefit of fire is often overridden by the economic benefits of protecting structures and lives. Additionally, federal policies that cover wildland areas usually differ from local and state policies that govern urban lands. In North America, the belief that fire suppression has substantially reduced the average annual area burned is widely held by resource managers, and is often thought to be self-evident. However, this belief has been the focus of vocal debate in the scientific literature. Equipment and personnel Wildfire suppression requires specialist personnel and equipment. Notable examples include smokejumpers (firefighters who parachute into remote areas) and helicopter support. Efficacy The success of wildfire suppression techniques is debated amongst the scientific community. A number of studies (produced during the 1990s) using Ontario government fire records compared either the number of fires or the average fire size between areas with and without aggressive fire suppression policies. They found that the average fire size was generally smaller in areas of aggressive policy. One report, written in 1998 by Stocks and Weber, said; "Use of fire as a management tool recognizes the natural role of fire and is applied judiciously for ecosystem maintenance and restoration in selected areas." A later 2005 study concluded that "Fire suppression is (functionally) effective insofar as it reduces area burned". Other studies have concluded that the 20th century change in the fire cycle is a result of climate change. A 1993 study by Bergeron & Archambault said: "post-'Little Ice Age' climate change has profoundly decreased the frequency of fires in the northwestern Québec boreal forest". Critics have also pointed out that small fires are virtually unreported in areas without aggressive fire suppression policies, where detection often relies on reports from settlements or commercial aircraft, leading to incorrect average fire size data for those regions. See also References Further reading Besenyo, Janos: Forest Fires as the New Form of Terrorism, Terrorism and Political Violence, pages 1–13, Published online: 11 Jul 2017 Casals P, Valor T, Besalú A, Molina-Terrén D. Understory fuel load and structure eight to nine years after prescribed burning in Mediterranean pine forests. DOI: 10.1016/j.foreco.2015.11.050 Valor T, González-Olabarria JR, Piqué M. Assessing the impact of prescribed burning on the growth of European pines. DOI: 10.1016/j.foreco.2015.02.002. External links The International Association of Wildland Fire Canadian Wildland Fire Information System The Canadian Interagency Forest Fire Centre (CIFFC) British Columbia Ministry of Forests Protection Branch United States National Interagency Fire Center Wildfire History and Ecology National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health - Fighting Wildfires Proposed Wildfire Suppression Technology Fire suppression Forestry occupations Occupational safety and health Wildfire ecology

5833062

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National%20Wildfire%20Coordinating%20Group

National Wildfire Coordinating Group

The National Wildfire Coordinating Group (NWCG) was formed in the United States as a result of the aftermath of a major wildfire season in 1970, including the Laguna Fire. The 1970 fire season underscored the need for a national set of training and equipment standards which would be standardized across the different agencies. NWCG included representatives from the United States Forest Service, the Bureau of Land Management, the National Park Service, the Bureau of Indian Affairs, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, and the National Association of State Foresters. After a series of meetings in the early 1970s, the NWCG was officially chartered by the Secretaries of the Interior and Agriculture in 1976. Among the notable results of the NWCG has been the adoption of the Interagency Fire Qualifications Rating system, more commonly known among firefighters as the "red card" qualification system; the establishment of the series of training classes associated with the red card system (such as the basic wildland fire course, S-130/S-190); the establishment of an interagency fire training center at Marana, Arizona; the publication of training manuals such as the Fireline Handbook; and the Resource Ordering Status System. NWCG was formed independently of two other programs which also formed in the 1970s out of the need for greater interagency coordination: the Boise Interagency Fire Center (now the National Interagency Fire Center), and the FIRESCOPE program in southern California. SmoC The NWCG oversees the Smoke Committee (SmoC), an advisory group that addresses strategies and guidance for addressing smoke within fire and fuels programs nationwide. The Committee's web page describes itself as a forum where air resource and wildland fire management programs and member agencies will discuss and attempt to resolve technical, regulatory and policy matters of joint interest concerning fire emissions and air quality impacts on firefighter and public safety and health from planned and unplanned fires. National Incident Management Organization In 2003, an Interagency Team identified strategies to improve incident management. The NWCG accepted the conclusions of the study in 2005 and the National Incident Management Organization (NIMO) was formed. The NIMO is a seven-member team of professional incident managers with complex incident management as their primary focus. In addition to incident management NIMO provides training, leadership development and other support activities. See also Pyne, Stephen J., Fire In America, 1982 University of Washington Press. National Incident Management System (NIMS) Incident Command System (ICS) Wildfire References External links Wildfire suppression agencies United States Forest Service United States Department of the Interior Firefighting in the United States 1976 establishments in the United States Organizations established in 1976

7264556

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wildfire%20%28Carol%20Vance%20Martin%29

Wildfire (Carol Vance Martin)

Wildfire (Carol Vance Martin) is a fictional superhero in the DC Comics universe. One of the first female superheroes, she was originally published by Quality Comics during what comics historians and fans called the Golden Age of comic books. With her luxurious mane of red hair and revealing costume, she has been called "the sexiest super-hero of 1941". According to Jess Nevins' Encyclopedia of Golden Age Superheroes, "her opponents are mostly ordinary criminals and Axis agents, although there are a few name villains, like the Frog, Mad Merlin, and the Dean of Darkness". Publication history Wildfire appears in Smash Comics #25-37, in solo adventures drawn by Jim Mooney. She, along with many other Quality Comics superheroes, was purchased by DC Comics after Quality went out of business in the mid-1950s. Wildfire was a redhead, who wore red pants. Her powers were gifted to her by the god of fire. Speculation that Wildfire was originally intended to play a major role in the All-Star Squadron series, but DC objected on the basis of her name, which she shared with the Legion of Super-Heroes member is inaccurate - Roy Thomas confirmed in Tomorrows' Quality Companion that he, not DC, took the decision not to use the character. A female incarnation of Firebrand was introduced into the series with similar abilities. Fictional character biography Her only appearance in a DC comic is in The Golden Age miniseries, by writer James Robinson and artist Paul Smith. In issue #4, the male cross-dressing character Madame Fatal appears in a panel surrounded by the Fiddler, and the Gambler, who all appear to be courting "her" while other heroes (including Wildfire) stand around giggling, evidently aware of Madame Fatal's true gender. She also inspired another character named Wildfire in the JLA: Destiny miniseries. References External links The Unofficial Wildfire Biography Wildfire Profile Wildfire (1941) at Don Markstein's Toonopedia. Archived from the original on September 15, 2015. Comics characters introduced in 1941 DC Comics female superheroes Golden Age superheroes Quality Comics superheroes Characters created by Jim Mooney Superheroes who are adopted

7704284

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wildfire%20%28Silver%20Dollar%20City%29

Wildfire (Silver Dollar City)

Wildfire is a steel roller coaster located at Silver Dollar City in Branson, Missouri. Manufactured by Bolliger & Mabillard, the $14-million ride opened to the public on April 4, 2001. It is themed as a flying machine developed by a fictional 1880s Ozark inventor. Wildfire stands tall with a drop of and features a maximum speed of . Along its of track, riders experience five inversions including an Immelmann loop, a vertical loop, a cobra roll, and a corkscrew. History In 2000, Silver Dollar City announced that they would be adding the Wildfire roller coaster to their park in April 2001. At a cost of $14 million, the ride would be the most expensive attraction in the park's history. By the time the ride was announced, construction was already underway in an undeveloped portion of land in the outskirts of the park. All of the ride's footings were in place with some of its steel supports already erected. Construction was expected to be completed in early January the following year, leaving three months for testing, landscaping, and theming. On April 4, 2001, Wildfire officially opened to the public. Characteristics The Wildfire features five inversions including an Immelmann loop, a vertical loop, a cobra roll and a corkscrew. The park's existing terrain (situated on the Ozark Mountains) is utilised to allow a lift hill to be followed by a first drop of . Riders reach a top speed of on the 2-minute, 14-second ride. The track was manufactured by Clermont Steel Fabricators located in Batavia, Ohio. Wildfire operates with two trains (generally with one train loading/unloading while the other runs the course, each featuring eight cars. Each car seats riders four abreast with ratcheting over-the-shoulder restraints. This configuration allows the ride to achieve a theoretical hourly capacity of 1,024 riders per hour when operating with two trains and 512 riders per hour with one train. Wildfire is located in the Hugo's Hill Street district of Silver Dollar City. It is themed around the story of an 1880s Ozark inventor named Dr. Horatio Harris. Harris had an aim to create a powered flying contraption for flight across the Ozark Mountains. The ride's name refers to the fuel he developed for his flying machine. The ride's queue and station area are modelled as the laboratory and invention warehouse of Harris. Riders eventually board his Wildfire-powered flying machine, the steel roller coaster. One year after the opening of the roller coaster Silver Dollar City began selling the Wildfire Burger, a hot and spicy hamburger themed after the ride. Ride experience After leaving the station, the train makes a 180-degree right turn and climbs up a chain lift hill. The train turns 90 degrees to the left after reaching the top, then descends down the first drop. This is followed by an Immelmann loop, a vertical loop, and a cobra roll – the latter of which inverts riders twice. Then the train heads up a banked curve into a corkscrew and a 230-degree turn into the final brake run. Reception Rick Baker, Silver Dollar City's vice president of corporate development and design, expected the addition of the ride would increase season pass sales by 9% to 250,000. In 2001, the park was visited by a total of 2.1 million people. In Amusement Today's annual Golden Ticket Awards, Wildfire ranked in the top 50 steel roller coasters three times. In 2003 it debuted at position 40, before dropping to 46 in 2004 and 49 in 2005. it has not returned to the listing. Notes References External links Roller coasters in Missouri Roller coasters introduced in 2001 Buildings and structures in Taney County, Missouri Silver Dollar City Roller coasters operated by Herschend Family Entertainment

8810003

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volunteer%20Wildfire%20Services

Volunteer Wildfire Services

The Volunteer Wildfire Services is a group of volunteers in Cape Town, South Africa who assist local fire fighting agencies to suppress wildfires. Affiliated to the Table Mountain National Park, the VWS is the only unit of its kind in South Africa. The VWS has three main functions: assist landowners with wildland fire suppression provide education and awareness programmes for school children, and provide training for private landowners in wildfire prevention and management techniques Funding is secured through various projects that allow the Unit to operate independently and manage their own funds and resources. The VWS forms partnerships with companies in order to survive financially. Fire fighters are on standby for 24 hours a day, for 365 days of the year. As with any volunteer organization, members are able to assist with wildfire suppression at various levels. While some are only available on weekends or after hours, others can assist at any time of the day or night. There are various sections within the Unit, including Active Fire Fighters, Logistical Support (Drivers, Caterers, Medics, Technical Support teams), Planners, Admin, and other important groups who ensure that the organization runs smoothly throughout the year. The VWS has provided thousands of hours of fire duty to the TMNP and other landowners at no charge, and will continue to do so as a sign of their commitment to assisting the citizens of Cape Town with the saving of lives and property, and the conservation of the Fynbos. A new branch of the VWS was inaugurated in Jonkershoek, Stellenbosch in 2009. It provides volunteer firefighting services to CapeNature in the Jonkershoek, Kogelberg, Hottentots Holland and Limietberg nature reserves, an area of some 290 000 ha of montane fynbos. Since 2009 two more stations have been added to the group, South Peninsula (2012) and Grabouw (2015). There are currently a around 220 active volunteers within this highly organised non-profit organisation. References Volunteer Wildfire Services Emergency service organizations who received certificates for outstanding volunteer service Reeds support Wildfire organisation in Cape Town - Reeds, 2006-08-21 Wildfires in South Africa Fire protection organizations Wildfire suppression agencies Environmental organisations based in South Africa

9425557

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HMS%20Wildfire%20%282000%20shore%20establishment%29

HMS Wildfire (2000 shore establishment)

HMS Wildfire is a Royal Naval Reserve unit in Northwood, North West London. Training over 100 reservists, HMS Wildfire is located within a purpose built training facility inside the national military tri-service HQ and NATO base. History Descended from a long a line of HMS Wildfires since the 1760s, the current unit was commissioned as HMS Northwood in 1957 to support the growing NATO Eastern Atlantic Command at Northwood. Housed initially within Northwood Headquarters, the unit occupied a series of huts until in 1988 the unit moved to Brackenhill House, an Edwardian mansion situated from the main gate of Northwood Headquarters/HMS Warrior. In May 2000 HMS Northwood decommissioned and was commissioned as HMS Wildfire. As part of the redevelopment of the base HMS Wildfire returned to the main base into a modern purpose built facility. On 11 June 2011, the Ships company formally marched from Brackenhill House to the Northwood base behind the RM Band Portsmouth and was inspected by Commander-in-Chief Fleet, Admiral Sir Trevor Soar. Commanding Officer The current Commanding Officer of HMS Wildfire is Lieutenant Commander Ian Dorward. References Royal Navy shore establishments

11770764

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spreadin%27%20Like%20Wildfire

Spreadin' Like Wildfire

Spreadin’ Like Wildfire (see 1981 in music) was The Archers' only album released on MCA. At the Grammy Awards of 1981, Spreadin' Like Wildfire was nominated for the Grammy Award for Best Gospel Performance, Contemporary. The Archers performed George Ratzlaff's "Everyday I've Got To Sing Some" on the Grammy Awards. Title list "Spreadin' Like Wildfire" (Hal and Rachel Newman) 4:01 "I Never Knew Love" (Reba Rambo - Dony McGuire) 4:02 "Sooner of Later" (Steve Archer - Reba Rambo) 4:22 "Back in Your Arms" (Tim Archer) 4:45 "Everyday I've Got To Sing Some" (George Ratzlaff) 4:11 "Runnin' Too Long" (Tim Archer - Reba Rambo) 4:13 "Care" (Steve Archer - Dan Cutrona) 4:33 "Nothing Can Separate Us" (Reba Rambo - Dony McGuire) 4:15 "Merry-Go-Round" (Steve Archer) 5:19 "Never Say Goodbye" (Bruce Hibbard) 3:53 Personnel Larrie Londin and Alex Acuña - drums and percussion Abraham Laboriel – bass Shane Keister and Dony McGuire – synthesizers Hadley Hockensmith - electric guitars Bill Kenner – mandolin Tony Sena - electric overdubs on "Merry-Go-Round" and "Never Say Goodbye." Strings by the Shelly Kurland Strings: Sheldon Kurland, George Binkley, John David Boyle, Marvin D. Chantry, Roy Christensen, Conni L. Ellisor, Carl J. Gorodetzky, Lennie Haight, Dennis W. Molchan, James R. Skipper, Samuel Terranova, Gary Vanasdale Horns: Dennis Solee (sax solos), Buddy Skipper, George Tidwell, Roger Bissell. Piano and Rhodes - Dan Cutrona Production Produced by Dony McGuire Track and vocal arrangements by Dony McGuire Strings and horns arranged by Buddy Skipper Recording and mixing engineers - Warren Peterson and George Michael Psanos Recorded at MCA Whitney Studios, Glendale, California Vocal overdubs recorded by Willie Harlan at IAM, Irvine, California Remixed at Sound Stage Studios, Nashville, Tennessee Mastered by Steve Hall at MCA Whitney Mastering Studios, Glendale, California Photography by Bob Duffy Art direction by George Osaki Design by Randy Moses References Archers: Cutting Edge Music Discography The Archers.US Archers.org External links http://www.thebeginningsconcert.com The Beginnings Concert The Archers (musical group) albums 1981 albums

13861074

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2007%20California%20wildfires

2007 California wildfires

The 2007 California wildfire season saw at least 9,093 separate wildfires that charred of land. Thirty of those wildfires were part of the Fall 2007 California firestorm, which burned approximately 972,147 acres (about 3,934 km2, or 1,520 mi2) of land from Santa Barbara County to the U.S.–Mexico border. At the peak of the wildfire activity in October 2007, the raging wildfires were visible from space. The wildfires killed a total of 17 people, with nine of them dying directly from the fires; 203 others were injured, including at least 124 firefighters. California Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger declared a state of emergency in seven California counties where fires were burning. President George W. Bush concurred, and ordered federal aid to supplement state and local response efforts. Over 6,000 firefighters worked to fight the blazes; they were aided by units of the United States Armed Forces, United States National Guard, almost 3,000 prisoners convicted of non-violent crimes, and 60 firefighters from the Mexican cities of Tijuana and Tecate. The fires forced approximately 1,000,000 people to evacuate from their homes, becoming the largest evacuation in California's history. Major contributing factors to the extreme fire conditions were drought in Southern California, hot weather, and the unusually strong Santa Ana winds, with gusts reaching 112 mph (180 km/h). California's "fire season," which traditionally runs from June to October, has become a year-round threat, due to a mixture of perennial drought and the increasing number of homes built in canyons and on hillsides, surrounded by brush and forest. The fires had numerous sources. Several were triggered by power lines damaged by the high winds. One fire started when a semi-truck overturned. Another was suspected as having been deliberately caused; the suspect was shot and killed in flight by state authorities. A 10-year-old boy admitted that he accidentally started the Buckweed Fire by playing with matches. Causes of the remaining fires remain under investigation. The last active fire of the October 2007 fires, the Harris Fire, was fully extinguished on November 16, 2007, about 27 days after the series of wildfires had begun to ignite. The October 2007 wildfires collectively caused over $2 billion in property damages. During the season, the National Interagency Fire Center reported that two firefighters were killed. One died in a helicopter crash, and the second was killed in a bulldozer rollover. Fires Below is a list of all fires that exceeded during the 2007 fire season. The list is taken from CAL FIRE's list of large fires. Notes October 2007 wildfires Wind and weather The October 2007 fires occurred following an extremely dry previous winter: in Los Angeles, with only of rainfall between July 2006 and June 2007, it was the driest “rain year” on record by . The record drought was exacerbated by the seasonal Santa Ana winds, blowing at an abnormally high strength. This combination of wind, heat, and dryness turned the chaparral into fire fuel. Officials believed that some of the fires generated their own winds, similar to the Oakland firestorm of 1991. The effects of the smoke were felt as far away as Brentwood in the East Bay, near Stockton, where it impacted local weather. High-speed Santa Ana winds also rendered the use of dropping water from fire fighting aircraft inefficient: until such winds abate, most payloads of water are just dispersed by the wind over an area so large that the water evaporates before it can reach a large fire on the ground. The San Diego Union-Tribune reported, At one point, swirling winds threatened to bring fire into densely populated urban areas. At the height of the Santa Ana winds on October 22, sustained wind speeds reached , with wind gusts up to reported. Impact On October 21, the Harris Fire damaged and disabled the Southwest Power Link, a 500,000-volt power line from Arizona to San Diego. Power outages were reported in Los Angeles, Orange, San Diego, and other counties on October 22 to 333,500 Southern California Edison customers, most being restored within 24 hours. The power outage also affected the areas of Ojai, Oxnard, Simi Valley, Santa Clarita, Thousand Oaks, Agoura Hills, Rialto, Fontana, San Bernardino, Rancho Cucamonga, Mira Loma, Hesperia, Corona, Bloomington, Irvine, Calimesa and Rubidoux. This outage also caused 230 people to be without power in Malibu. The California Independent System Operator Corp declared an energy transmission emergency in southern California on October 23, due to wildfires affecting the lines. 500,000-, 230,000- and 138,000-volt lines were disabled in San Diego, and some lines in other areas were also disabled. 24,992 people lost power, due to the lack of power from the power grid. During the crisis, Mexico provided power to help augment the electrical needs of the San Diego area. Authorities have stated that the evacuations, which displaced more than 900,000 people, have been the largest evacuation number in the history of California. By mid-morning on October 22, 2007, thousands of evacuees were taking shelter in Qualcomm Stadium and other locations throughout San Diego. On the afternoon of October 22, 2007, the Marines evacuated some planes from Marine Corps Air Station Miramar to other military bases in California and Arizona. The Navy moved all non-essential personnel from Naval Base San Diego barracks onto nearby vessels to accommodate refugees. The San Diego Wild Animal Park moved some animals to the on-site animal hospital for their protection. The Horno Fire had charred in Camp Pendleton by 4:00 A.M PDT, on October 24, 2007. It caused the closure of Interstate 5 and it also caused Amtrak California to stop Pacific Surfliner service between Oceanside and San Clemente. Traffic was being diverted to Interstate 15, which had itself been closed earlier. Illegal migrant workers were endangered by the crisis, sometimes staying at work in the fields within mandatory evacuation zones. Many had lived in the canyons nearby and distrusted officials. When fleeing the fires, some were arrested, while others were turned away from shelters due to lack of adequate identification. Some Mexican firefighters expressed concern about their countrymen, while others felt the migrant workers were aware of the risks they were taking. coyotehowls Only a few cases of looting were documented. Six people were arrested for stealing supplies from Qualcomm stadium, another was arrested for theft after being found in possession of stolen goods in the Jamul fire area, and two were arrested near the Tecate border crossing. Air quality and effects on health The concentration of particulate matter 10 micrometers and smaller (designated PM10) reached unhealthy levels as a result of the fires. PM10 particles are small enough to enter deep into the lungs, and possibly the bloodstream. San Diego city attorney Michael Aguirre, citing concerns over weather conditions and air quality, urged the city to consider a voluntary evacuation of the entire city. Response Government agencies and volunteers worked together to mitigate the effects of the fires. According to the state of California's Consolidated Response web page, "There are 17 active fires in Southern California. The priority for fighting fires as of 19:30 on October 21 were the Buckweed, Witch, Harris, Canyon, Ranch, Santiago, and Sedgewick Fires." March Air Reserve Base is the primary staging area for relief supplies as coordinated by the Federal Emergency Management Agency. With many businesses and schools closed, some people used their time off to help others. Officials estimated that 10,000 people were gathered at Qualcomm Stadium, the largest shelter point in San Diego. Besides food, blankets and water, volunteers provided toys for children, massages, and a live rock and roll band performance. CERT teams, in various cities, received their first activation since the program's inception in this region. Trained volunteers provided assistance ranging from coordinating relief, to acting as a fire department auxiliary. Religious groups such as Victim Relief Ministries, Giving Children Hope, Hope Force International, Apostolic World Relief, and the Salvation Army responded by opening places of worship, donating supplies, and feeding workers and evacuees. The Department of Defense contributed twelve engines for firefighting efforts. The National Guard called more than 2,400 troops, with 17,000 available if needed; of which 100 California National Guard medical personnel provided medical assistance. Six crews from the Navy's Helicopter Sea Combat Squadron 85 based at Naval Air Station North Island were assigned to battle the Witch Creek fire. They flew MH-60 Seahawk helicopters equipped with a 420-gallon water bucket and they were the only local Navy teams trained to fight fires from the air. Marine Corps Air Station Miramar contributed several aircraft as well as fire fighting trucks to operations based in Ramona. One of the larger airtankers, the Martin Mars, sent through a private contract from its home in Port Alberni, British Columbia on October 25, landing on Lake Elsinore in Riverside County, California. It has a 7,000 gallon capacity. Two other airtankers and their crews from Quebec worked on the fires, part of an annual three-month contract with the state of California. California Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger declared a state of emergency in seven California counties where fires burned. President George W. Bush concurred and visited the region on Thursday, October 25, 2007. Rep. Duncan Hunter criticized state fire officials for delaying the use of Marine helicopters until CalFire spotters were in position to coordinate their efforts. However, California Fire Marshal Kate Dargan said that the Marines and officials at CalFire were following procedures worked out with the military after serious problems with air coordination during the 2003 California wildfires. Other state officials also praised the federal response. Aaron McLear, a spokesman for Schwarzenegger, said the governor "is getting everything he needs from the federal government". NBC Nightly News reported that with the evacuations reaching about 950,000 people, this was the largest peacetime movement of Americans since the Civil War era, although similar evacuation figures were cited for Hurricane Rita and Hurricane Katrina. On November 6, 2007, the state of California reported that the fires were under control. On November 9, the last vole of wildfires were finally contained. According to the state's consolidated report on the fires, Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger "called on the Blue Ribbon Task Force to assess the next steps to take at federal, state and local levels of government to prevent and fight future fires. Additionally, the Governor asked the task force to review the Governor’s Blue Ribbon Fire Commission’s recommendations, generated after the 2003 fires, to evaluate if the recommendations are still the best and most effective ways in preventing and fighting fires." See also List of California wildfires FIRESCOPE References External links Maps CalFire map LA Times managed Google map showing fire locations and relevant information MSNBC managed Virtual Earth map showing fire locations KPBS managed Google map with detailed San Diego area information San Diego County map showing evacuated areas CBS 8: San Diego fire maps Orange County Register detailed map of Santiago fire Academics and research MAP.SDSU.EDU - mapping, database and geographic information system for the 2003 and 2007 fires, managed by the San Diego GIS force group, and hosted by San Diego State University The San Diego Fire Recovery Network - a Southern California organization which addresses the widespread ecosystem changes in San Diego County caused by the 2003 and 2007 wild fires The GIS Data Center for San Diego Fire Recovery Network - hosted by San Diego State University Let Malibu Burn: A political history of the Fire Coast by Mike Davis 2007 Southern California Wildfires Web Archive at the California Digital Library. California, 2007 Wildfires in California by year

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San%20Diego%20wildfires

San Diego wildfires

The term San Diego fires or San Diego wildfires may refer to: Cedar Fire (2003) 2005 Labor Day brush fire October 2007 California wildfires#San Diego County, which includes the Witch Creek Fire and the Harris Fire Witch Fire Harris Fire May 2014 San Diego County wildfires May 2016 4S Ranch brush fire San Diego Wildfire - American Basketball Association team

13961020

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20California%20wildfires

List of California wildfires

This is a partial and incomplete list of California wildfires. California has dry, windy, and often hot weather conditions from spring through late autumn that can produce moderate to severe wildfires. Pre-1800, when the area was much more forested and the ecology much more resilient, 4.4 million acres (1.8 million hectares) of forest and shrubland burned annually. California land area totals 99,813,760 or roughly 100 million acres, so since 2000, the area that burned annually has ranged between 90,000 acres, or 0.09%, and 1,590,000 acres, or 1.59% of the total land of California. During the 2020 wildfire season alone, over 8,100 fires contributed to the burning of nearly 4.5 million acres of land. Wildfires in California are growing more dangerous because of the accumulation of wood fuel in forests, higher population and greater electricity transmission and distribution lines. United States taxpayers pay about US$3 billion a year to fight wildfires, and big fires can lead to billions of dollars in property losses. At times, these wildfires are fanned or made worse by strong, dry winds, known as Diablo winds when they occur in the northern part of the state and Santa Ana winds when they occur in the south. However, from a historical perspective, it has been estimated that prior to 1850, about 4.5 million acres (17,000 km²) burned yearly, in fires that lasted for months, with wildfire activity peaking roughly every 30 years, when up to 11.8 million acres (47,753 km³) of land burned. The much larger wildfire seasons in the past can be attributed to the policy of Native Californians regularly setting controlled burns and allowing natural fires to run their course, which prevented devastating wildfires from overrunning the state. More than 350,000 people in California live in towns sited completely within zones deemed to be at very high risk of fire. In total, more than 2.7 million people live in "very high fire hazard severity zones", which also include areas at lesser risk. On lands under CAL FIRE's jurisdictional protection (i.e. not federal or local responsibility areas), the majority of wildfire ignitions since 1980 have been caused by humans. The four most common ignition sources for wildfires on CAL FIRE-protected lands are, in order: equipment use, powerlines, arson, and lightning. Statistics Area burned per year Starting in 2001, the National Interagency Fire Center began keeping more accurate records on the total fire acreage burned in each state. A 2015 study addressed whether the increase in fire risk in California is attributable to climate change. Largest wildfires The 20 largest wildfires according to the California Department of Forestry and Fire Protection. Deadliest wildfires The 20 deadliest wildfires according to the California Department of Forestry and Fire Protection. Most destructive wildfires The 20 most destructive wildfires according to the California Department of Forestry and Fire Protection. Areas of repeated ignition In some parts of California, fires can recur in areas with histories of fires. In Oakland, for example, fires of various size and ignition occurred in 1923, 1931, 1933, 1937, 1946, 1955, 1960, 1961, 1968, 1970, 1980, 1990, 1991, 1995, 2002, and 2008. Orange County, Riverside County, San Bernardino County, and Los Angeles County are other examples. Orange and San Bernardino counties share a border that runs north to south through the Chino Hills State Park, with the park's landscape ranging from large green coastal sage scrub, grassland, and woodland, to areas of brown sparsely dense vegetation made drier by droughts or hot summers. The valley's grass and barren land can become easily susceptible to dry spells and drought, therefore making it a prime spot for brush fires and conflagrations, many of which have occurred since 1914. Hills and canyons have seen brush or wildfires in 1914, the 1920s, 1930s, 1940s, 1950s, 1960s, 1970s, 1980s, 1990s, 2000s, and into today. On occasion, lightning strikes from thunderstorms may also spark wildfires in areas that have seen past ignition. Examples of this are the 1999 Megram Fire, the 2008 California wildfires., as well as both the LNU and SCU Lightning Complex fires of 2020. See also List of wildfires 2012–13 North American drought Wildfires in the United States Climate change in California References External links Official California Department of Forestry and Fire Protection (CAL FIRE) site Wildfires Wildfire Lists of wildfires in the United States

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1921%20Mari%20wildfires

1921 Mari wildfires

Wildfires in the Mari Autonomous Oblast, in the east of European Russia, occurred in the summer of 1921. Damage included 2,660 square kilometres of pine forest burned off, with serious repercussions for industry in the area, already paralyzed by the Povolzhye famine. The wildfires led to 35 human and 1,000 cattle deaths, and 60 villages were destroyed. The effects of the fire were made worse by strong winds. References https://web.archive.org/web/20160304124904/http://www.finugor.ru/?q=node%2F875 http://forestforum.ru/phorum/viewtopic.php?printertopic=1&t=2599&postdays=0&postorder=asc&&start=70&sid=95d5f70c5d148c910f851125b822e423 History of Mari El 1921 Mari 1921 in Russia 1920s fires in Europe 1921 fires 1920s wildfires

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West%20Virginia%20Wildfire

West Virginia Wildfire

The West Virginia Wildfire is a women's American football team in the Women's Spring Football League since 2011. The first women's football team in West Virginia, the Wildfire is based in the city of Belle. In their inaugural season, the WildKats were known as the West Virginia Wonders and played in the National Women's Football Association. After that inaugural season, the team was originally set to play in the Women's Football Alliance for 2009 as the West Virginia WildKats, but then they decided to take the next two seasons off to reorganize further. In 2012, the Wildfire won their first ever championship, winning the WSFL's 8-man division title. In 2013, the Wildfire beat the Binghamton Tigercats 44–8 to win their second consecutive WSFL 8-man title. Season-by-season |- | colspan="6" align="center" | West Virginia Wonders (NWFA) |- |2008 || 0 || 8 || 0 || 4th North Central || -- |- |2009 || colspan="6" rowspan="2" align="center" | Did Not Play |- |2010 |- | colspan="6" align="center" | West Virginia Wildfire (WSFL) |- |2011 || 0 || 3 || 1 || -- || -- |- |2012 || 5 || 2 || 0 || 1st 8-man division || Champions |- |2013 || 6 || 0 || 0 || 1st 8-man division || Champions |- !Totals || 11 || 13 || 1 |colspan="2"| (including playoffs) External links West Virginia Wildfire website National Women's Football Association teams Women's Spring Football League teams Sports in Charleston, West Virginia American football teams in West Virginia American football teams established in 2008 2008 establishments in West Virginia Women's sports in West Virginia

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20Wildfire%20episodes

List of Wildfire episodes

The following is a list of the episodes for the ABC Family drama Wildfire. Episode summaries are from Genevieve Cortese Fan.com Series overview Episodes Season 1 (2005) Season 2 (2006) Season 3 (2007) Season 4 (2008) External links Wildfire

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20Washington%20wildfires

List of Washington wildfires

This is an incomplete list of major wildfires in Washington state history. Washington wildfires ordered by size This list only includes "major fires" that destroyed over , incurred fatalities or damaged a significant amount of property. With a lag of 1 to 2 years, more or less complete data is available from 2002 on via the website with incident status summaries maintained by the National Fire and Aviation Management. Older fires are increasingly underreported. For example, none of the wildfires of 1926-31 and 1943 that together destroyed more than 500,000 acres of the Colville National Forest are included. Year-by-year statistics Wildfire seasons are defined by Washington state law as lasting from April 15 through October 15 of each year, allowing for burn bans and other restrictions to be imposed on state lands by the Washington State Department of Natural Resources during that time. According to a North American Seasonal Fire Assessment and Outlook report issued in June, 2019, the summer months represent peak fire season. Notes References External links Okanogan National Forest Pacific Northwest National Incident Management Team 2 Historical Incident ICS-209 Reports Firefighting in Washington (state) Forestry in the United States Washington

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2008%20California%20wildfires

2008 California wildfires

The 2008 California wildfire season was one of the most devastating in the state of the 21st century. While 6,255 fires occurred, about two-thirds as many as in 2007, the total area burned— —far exceeded that of previous years. By July 5, 2008, 328 wildfires were burning, and those fires were only 81% contained. For the first time since 1977, the US military helped with ground-based firefighting, when Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger dispatched 400 California National Guard troops, including Chief Medical Officer Susan Pangelinan, to manage fire lines. He said the number of fires had stretched the state's fire-fighting resources thin. "One never has resources for 1,700 fires. Who has the resources for that?" Schwarzenegger said, adding, "Something is happening, clearly. There's more need for resources than ever before... it's fire season all year round." Fires Below is a list of all fires that exceeded during the 2008 fire season. The list is taken from CAL FIRE's list of large fires. Summer fires The Summer 2008 fires were a concentrated outbreak of wildfires during the late spring and summer of 2008. Over 3,596 individual fires were burning at the height of the period, burning large portions of forests and chaparral in California, injuring at least 34 individuals and killing 32. The majority of the fires were started by lightning from dry thunderstorms on June 20, although some earlier fires ignited during mid-May. International aid from Greece, Cyprus, Chile, Argentina, Brazil, Australia, Canada, Mexico, and New Zealand helped fight the fires. The first of the wildfires was the Big Horn Fire, which ignited on May 13. Three other minor wildfires ignited subsequently, but were extinguished by May 17. On May 20, the Avocado Fire ignited in Fresno County, only to be extinguished 2 days later. On May 22, 2008, the human-caused Summit Fire broke out in the Santa Cruz Mountains, which became the first major fire. On July 5, 2008, California Governor Schwarzenegger commented that "I've been driving up and down the state of California going to all the various fires, and you can imagine, this state is very prepared for fire, but when you wake up one morning and have 500 fires across the state, it was a real shock to me... only to find the next morning there were 1,000 fires, and the next morning 1,400 fires, and then 1,700 fires igniting over 14 days." The Gap Fire near Goleta in Santa Barbara County burned . The fire was contained on July 29, after several weeks of activity. By July 11, 2008, it was reported that a total of was burned, a total exceeding the initial estimate of burned by the October 2007 California wildfires. On July 12, 2008, the area burned reached , exceeding the estimated burned by the 2003 California wildfires, making the Summer 2008 wildfires the greatest wildfire event in Californian history, in terms of burned area. On that date 20,274 personnel had been committed to fight the fires. Total resources included 467 hand crews, 1,503 engines, 423 water tenders, 291 bulldozers, 142 helicopters, 400 soldiers and numerous air tankers. The fire was responsible for the deaths of 23 individuals. On July 25, a blaze sparked by target shooting broke out in Mariposa County, in the Sierra Nevada foothills of central California. By the following day, the Telegraph Fire had gone from , and within days had destroyed 21 homes in the community of Midpines. Residents were evacuated from approximately 300 homes that were immediately threatened, with an additional 4,000 homes placed on standby for evacuation in Midpines, Greeley Hill, and Coulterville. During August, wildfire activity began to diminish, although there were still hundreds of wildfires still burning. On August 29, wildfire activity had largely ended, although three more wildfires ignited after September 1, beginning with the Gladding Fire. On September 10, the Colony Fire was 100% contained, ending the last of the Summer 2008 California wildfires. The Summer 2008 wildfires burned a total of between May 2008 and September 2008, comprising the vast majority of burned land by wildfires in California in 2008. In total, the Summer 2008 wildfires burned a total of , which accounts for 84% of the total area burned during the 2008 wildfire season. In addition, the Summer 2008 fires cost over $92.38 million (2008 USD) to fight. The Basin Complex Fire in the Ventana Wilderness became the third largest wildfire in California's history based on size (until it was surpassed in size by the 2013 Rim Fire), and also the second-costliest wildfire to extinguish in U.S. history. Weather The fires broke out after three years of below-normal rainfall dehydrated much of California's forests and woodlands, making them prone to wildfires. Spring 2008 for California was the driest on record for many locations; for example, San Francisco registered only of rain out of a normal of from March to May. As vegetation turned into bone-dry tinder in early June, Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger declared a statewide drought for the first time in 17 years. Dry thunderstorms and lightning, rarely seen on the California coastline in June, rolled onshore on the weekend of June 20–21. The storm unleashed 25,000 to 26,000 dry lightning strikes across Northern and Central California, igniting more than 2,000 fires. The number of wildfires skyrocketed in the days after the thunderstorms and high daily daytime temperatures of over dramatically increased the various fires' growth. The same thunderstorms also caused fires in Oregon. A heat wave commenced on July 7, with temperatures in inland locations, such as the Central Valley soaring above . Lake Berryessa recorded a high temperature of , prompting weather agencies like the National Weather Service to issue high fire danger warnings. These near to record-breaking temperatures concerned many firefighters, who feared that the high heat, low humidity, and high-elevation winds could make firefighting more strenuous. Contributing factors John Juskie, a National Weather Service science officer, was quoted in June 2008 in the Los Angeles Times stating "in historic terms, we're at record dry levels." The spring of 2008 not only broke the record for least inches of rainfall, at 0.17 of an inch, it represented less than one-third of the previous record low of 0.55 of an inch of rainfall in 1934. A record lack of rainfall, severely dry vegetation and uncharacteristically windy weather combined to create tinderbox conditions across Northern California. In most areas of Northern California, the grasses and brush were as dry in June as they normally would be in October. Moisture content was less than 2%, compared with about 40% normally for this time of year, fire officials stated. In addition, "no one has seen a springtime like this with the winds," Juskie said. Smoke and air quality Air quality in northern and central California deteriorated as a result of smoke from the wildfires, especially in the Central Valley from Bakersfield in the southern San Joaquin Valley section to Redding in the northern Sacramento Valley section. Northern California From June 21 to June 27, much of Northern California was covered in a thick blanket of smoke, which reduced visibility and turned the sky yellow and the Moon red. Some areas endured record levels of air pollution, along with hazardous concentrations of particulate matter. These smoky and hazy conditions prompted health officials to issue air quality advisories and warnings, as particulate matter reached unhealthy levels in the North Bay on June 25. In the San Francisco Bay Area, the Bay Area Air Quality Management District urged the elderly and people with respiratory problems to stay indoors. In spite of the warnings, health officials noted a jump in the number of people with eye and throat irritation. The bad air quality also forced the cancellation of the Western States Endurance Run, the first in the race's 31-year history. Air quality began to improve on June 28, followed by decreased smoke and improved visibility a day later. By June 30, residents in the Sacramento Valley saw blue skies and good air quality, as a result of onshore winds and the Delta breezes. However, air quality in Oregon degraded as plumes of smoke drifted northward instead of concentrating in the Central Valley. Spare the Air Hazy conditions returned on July 7, along with high temperatures over in the Central Valley. The heat and smoke combined forced public health officials and Gov. Arnold Schwarzenegger to issue "Spare the Air" advisories and an emergency plan for heat waves, respectively. Air quality districts issued another Spare the Air day for July 8, July 9, and July 10, as calm wind conditions in Northern California failed to blow away the smoke from the wildfires. Smoky conditions continued into late August, when most of the wildfires were extinguished. The smoke from the fires finally began to disperse on September 10, after the last of the wildfires was fully contained. Health Impact A paper in the American Journal of Respiratory Cell and Molecular Biology studied a group of adolescent rhesus macaque monkeys that were exposed during infancy to smoke from northern California wildfires in 2008. They found that monkeys exposed to wildfire smoke as infants had "significantly reduced inspiratory capacity, residual volume, vital capacity, and functional residual capacity per unit of body weight." There was also a trend of reduced total lung capacity in animals exposed to wildfire smoke as infants. Adolescent monkeys exposed to wildfire smoke as infants were also found to have a lessened PBMCs responses to TLR Ligands. TLR5 has been linked with the asthma phenotype experimentally and in human subjects. An important finding in the study was that monkeys over 200 miles away from the combustion were still found to have significant immune and respiratory changes. The findings were consistent with many other human group studies and suggest that children who underwent the same experience as the monkeys in the study have a high chance of exhibiting similar health problems but, that because normal development of rhesus monkeys is accelerated compared to human children the relative impact of this amount of wildfire smoke exposure might differ. November Fires The month of November saw a large number of fires, around 2,151, which began burning across Southern California on November 13, with 4 of them becoming major wildfires. At least 400 houses and 500 mobile homes were destroyed. According to USA Today, these wildfires combined with those from October 2007 and the Summer of 2008 were the worst group of wildfires that California had experienced in two decades. Los Angeles Mayor Antonio Villaraigosa told residents, "If you wait until the fire gets there you have waited too long, this fire can be on you in a moment's notice." California Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger declared a state of emergency in Santa Barbara, Los Angeles, and Orange Counties. Governor Schwarzenegger described the conditions contributing to the fires as a "perfect storm," including strong Santa Ana and sundowner winds, with gusts reaching , as well as high temperatures, low humidity, and dry conditions. The most significant fires were the following: Montecito Tea Fire - a wildfire that started on November 13, 2008, in the wealthy community of Montecito, in Santa Barbara County, California, resulting in the destruction of 210 homes. Many celebrities have homes in the area of the Tea Fire, including Oprah Winfrey, Rob Lowe, and Steven Spielberg. The home of actor Christopher Lloyd was destroyed in the fire. Sayre Fire - a wildfire that started on November 13, 2008, in the Sylmar section of Los Angeles, California, resulting in the destruction of at least 630 structures, including 500 mobile homes, nine single-family homes, and eleven commercial buildings. The loss of more than 500 residences is the "worst loss of homes due to fire" ever in the City of Los Angeles, California, exceeding the loss of 484 residences in the 1961 Bel Air fire. Freeway Complex Fire - The combination of 2 wildfires, one of which was known as the Corona Fire by the news media, or Triangle Complex Fire, that started at approximately 9:00 a.m. PDT on November 15, 2008, and spread across the communities of Corona, Chino Hills, Yorba Linda, Anaheim Hills and Brea in Orange and Riverside County, California, and also spread to Diamond Bar in Los Angeles County. Later on November 15, the Landfill Fire ignited at 10:45 AM, and early on May 16, both wildfires merged into the Freeway Complex Fire. The Freeway Complex Fire burned about , injured 14 firefighters, and destroyed about 200 structures, and forced the evacuations of about 7,000 homes. Fatalities During the season, the National Interagency Fire Center reported 13 firefighter fatalities while battling wildfires. Nine were killed in a helicopter crash, while others died of a heart attack, a falling tree, and an entrapment. In all, 32 people were killed by the wildfires. See also October 2007 California wildfires 2017 California wildfires October 2017 Northern California wildfires Rush Fire List of California wildfires References California, 2008 Wildfires in California by year

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wildfire%20%28motor%20company%29

Wildfire (motor company)

Wildfire Motors was a company based in Steubenville, Ohio, specializing in the sales of scooters, motorcycles, ATVs, cyclecars, and electric vehicles. The vehicles are manufactured in China and are distributed throughout the United States. This distributor has ten cases under review with the Ohio Attorney General and 30 with the Better Business Bureau. The United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) announced on April 3, 2013, that it is withdrawing approval of the import and sale of up to 74,000 gas-powered on- and off-road motorcycles and all-terrain vehicles from China. The agency believes that it received either incomplete or falsified certification information. Former Models WF650-T and WF650-C The Wildfire WF650-T is a three-wheeled truck. The Wildfire WF650-C is a three-wheeled hatchback sedan. Both are registered with the Department of Transportation as motorcycles. They are powered by a 650 cc water-cooled 4-stroke twin engine. The manufacturer states the vehicles get up to 60 miles per gallon, although some dealers have suggested 40–60 miles per gallon is a more realistic figure. Both vehicles are manufactured by Jiangsu Sandi Motorcycle Co Ltd. On April 3, 2013, the EPA withdrew its approval of the import and sale of over 70,000 gas-powered on- and off-road motorcycles and all-terrain vehicles because the agency believes that it received either incomplete or falsified certification information. The EPA issued the vehicle certificates from 2006 to 2012 to two companies which operate as Snyder Technology, Inc. and Snyder Computer Systems, Inc. (doing business as Wildfire Motors Corporation). As a result of a lengthy investigation, the agency believes that the applications for the certificates contained fallacious information and must be voided. All vehicles imported into or manufactured in the United States are required to have certificates of conformity. WF-120V Total Electric NEV and WF-72V The WF-120V is a two-seat coupe manufactured by Shandong Huoyun Electric Car Co., Ltd, located in Zibo, China. The WF-72 V is a four-seat sedan manufactured by Shandong Pioneer Motorcycle Co., Ltd. The WF-120 is powered by an 8.5 kilowatt, 120 volt AC motor. The WF-72 V is powered by an 8.5 kilowatt, 72 volt, AC motor. The styling of the WF-120 V seems to be a copy of the Smart, including lines in quarter panels where the Smart doors are supposed to close. This appears to be a liability and the owner of the Smart design (Mercedes) may force the manufacturer to stop import or take other legal action. As they are registered as neighborhood electric vehicles, both are programmed by the manufacturer not to exceed 25 miles per hour but can be adjusted to run up to 50 miles per hour. WF250-T and WF250-C The WF250-T is a three-wheeled truck. The WF250-C is a three-wheeled hatchback sedan. Both were manufactured by Shandong Pioneer Motorcycle Co., Ltd. as well as Ammar Motor Company, which manufactures right hand drive versions and is located in Karachi, Pakistan. References External links Shandong Huoyun Electric Car Co., Ltd Shandong Pioneer Motorcycle Co., Ltd. Taixing Sandi Motorcycle Co Ltd. Vehicle manufacturing companies established in 1998 Defunct motor vehicle manufacturers of the United States Battery electric vehicle manufacturers Car manufacturers of the United States Electric vehicle manufacturers of the United States

18695611

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wildfire%20%28Michael%20Martin%20Murphey%20song%29

Wildfire (Michael Martin Murphey song)

"Wildfire" is a song written by Michael Murphey and Larry Cansler. It was originally recorded by Murphey, who had yet to add his middle name to his recorded work, and appears on his gold-plus 1975 album Blue Sky – Night Thunder. Released in February 1975 as the album's lead single, "Wildfire" became Murphey's highest-charting pop hit in the United States. The somber story song hit No. 2 in Cash Box and No. 3 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart in June 1975. In addition, it hit the top position of the Billboard Adult Contemporary chart, displacing "Love Will Keep Us Together". The single continued to sell, eventually receiving platinum certification from the RIAA, signifying sales of over two million US copies. Members of the Western Writers of America chose it as one of the Top 100 Western songs of all time. Background Murphey and Cansler co-wrote "Wildfire" in 1968, shortly after Murphey emerged as a solo artist. Earlier in the decade he had been part of a duo known as the Lewis & Clark Expedition in 1968 with singer-songwriter Boomer Castleman. They appeared and performed in an episode of the TV sitcom I Dream of Jeannie. When Murphey rerecorded "Wildfire" for a new album in 1997, he was quoted by Billboard as saying that what many consider his signature song "broke my career wide open and, on some level, still keeps it fresh. Because that song appeals to kids, and always has, it's kept my career fresh." In a 2008 interview, Murphey talked about the origins of the song and the context in which it was written. He was a third-year student at UCLA, working on a concept album for Kenny Rogers (The Ballad of Calico). The work was demanding, sometimes taking more than 20 hours a day. One night, he dreamed the song in its totality, writing it up in a few hours the next morning. He believes the song came to him from a story his grandfather told him when he was a little boy – a prominent Native American legend about a ghost horse. Murphey did not have a horse named Wildfire until a few years before the interview, when he gave that name to a palomino mare. Content The lyrics are those of a homesteader telling the story of a young Nebraska woman said to have died searching for her escaped pony, "Wildfire", during a blizzard. The homesteader finds himself in a similar situation, doomed in an early winter storm. A hoot owl has perched outside of his window for six nights, and the homesteader believes the owl is a sign that the ghost of the young woman is calling for him. He hopes to join her (presumably in heaven) and spend eternity riding Wildfire with her, leaving the difficulties of earthly life behind. The song has a piano intro and outro which was edited out for radio. The introduction is based on a piece (Prelude in D-flat, Op. 11 No. 15) by the Russian classical composer Alexander Scriabin. Personnel Michael Murphey – vocals, piano Jac Murphy – piano (intro and outro) Sam Broussard – guitar Richard Dean – guitar, background vocals Michael McKinney – bass, background vocals Harry Wilkinson – drums Jeff Hanna – background vocals Jimmy Ibbotson – background vocals John McEuen – mandolin Chart performance Weekly charts Year-end charts In popular culture In 2007, the host of The Late Show, David Letterman, developed a sudden fascination with "Wildfire", discussing the song and its lyrics—particularly the line about "leave sodbustin' behind"—with the bandleader Paul Shaffer over the course of several weeks. This ultimately led to Murphey's being invited on the show to perform "Wildfire". Letterman described the song as "haunting and disturbingly mysterious, but always lovely," and surmised that the performance would leave the studio audience with "a palpable sense of ... mysticism, melancholy ... and uplifting well-being." In a third-season episode of The Simpsons named "Lisa's Pony", Lisa played the song for her pony with her saxophone. She introduced the song by saying "This next song is also about a girl and her pony. It's called 'Wildfire'." The song has occasionally appeared in "bad song" surveys, such as one by the humor columnist Dave Barry during the 1990s. He quoted one reader who, referring to the song's tale of the loss of a woman and a pony in a "killing frost", pointed out that "'killing' in 'killing frost' refers to your flowers and your garden vegetables, and when one is forecast you should cover your tomatoes ... Nobody ever got lost in a killing frost who wouldn't get lost in July as well." Covers Tracy Byrd covered the song on his 2001 album Ten Rounds. Doris Day covered the song on her 1986 television series Doris Day's Best Friends. The recording was released on her album Music, Movies and Memories. The song is included in The Langley Schools Music Project album. See also List of number-one adult contemporary singles of 1975 (U.S.) References 1975 singles Michael Martin Murphey songs Tracy Byrd songs RPM Top Singles number-one singles Songs written by Michael Martin Murphey Song recordings produced by Bob Johnston Epic Records singles 1975 songs Songs about horses Songs about death

18722896

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calgary%20Wildfire

Calgary Wildfire

Calgary Wildfire were a W-League club based in Calgary, Alberta, Canada. Year-by-year Women's soccer clubs in Canada W United Soccer League teams based in Canada Defunct USL W-League (1995–2015) teams

18790395

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wildfire%20history%20of%20Cape%20Cod

Wildfire history of Cape Cod

The wildfire potential of the forests of Cape Cod, located in southeastern Massachusetts, has been described as being the third most flammable area in the nation, behind southern California and the New Jersey Pine Barrens. With the development of the Cape from the 1960s to the present, the wildfire danger has diminished but thousands of acres are still capable of burning. History Pre-European Before Europeans settled the Cape, the forests were periodically burned by lightning strikes and the Wampanoag version of the prescribed burn. This kept the amount of underbrush to a minimum, thus allowing the Cape to experience few, if any, major wildfires. Excavations of charcoal, pollen and sediment from Mary Dunn Pond, in Barnstable show that the Wampanoag practiced periodic burns. The area around the Indian Ponds of Barnstable, including Mystic Lake, Middle Pond, and Hamblin Pond used to be burned by natives who would then subsequently use the land in small plots to farm. Colonization In the 1620s, the Cape was forever altered by the settlement of Europeans. The settlers did not like periodic fires in their backyards, and they put out any fire before it could really burn and do damage. This, and massive deforestation by the initial settlers, led to a large amount of brush accumulating in the surviving woods of the Cape. Unfortunately for the settlers, this caused fires, when they occurred, to really burn and explode instead of burning along the ground. The forests of this time were small and spread out so there was not much potential for disaster, but that changed after industrialization. Industrial Age The discovery of the New World led to newfound industries to many Europeans. One was shipbuilding. This was important on the Cape because the tall trees which survived the mass deforestation of the initial settlement, led to the major expansion of the shipbuilding industry. This, along with the decreased farming of the land, created an opportunity for pitch pine and scrub oak to grow in abundance. This land was divided up into individual firewood plots. Some of this wood was bought up by the Boston and Sandwich Glass Company, which operated from 1825 to 1888 and the Barnstable Brick Company, which operated from 1878 to 1929. Unfortunately, this led to many fires burning many acres because the forests began to connect. Modern era In the early 1900s, the Cape started to become part of the state's fire lookout tower network. Towers were constructed in many towns to make it easier to coordinate firefighting. Massive burns occurred in the forests, larger than any seen since pre-colonial times. This was especially true on the Upper Cape, where the forests had matured more than the rest of Cape Cod. Modern techniques for fighting these fires include controlled burns and the clearing of brush. The discontinuation of live firing at the Massachusetts Military Reservation has also contributed to the decrease in the intensity of the fires. The military has helped with the hazard by periodically burning portions of the land to prevent these massive fires. According to a study published in 2003, the Cape has a fire that burns on the hundreds to thousands of acres size every 30 to 50 years. Camp Edwards was excluded from this research because it burns more with the munitions on the base. See also Changes in the Land: Indians, Colonists, and the Ecology of New England References External links Wildland Fire and Preparedness Plan For West Barnstable Conservation Area and Adjacent Open Space Lands Mass. DCR Forest Fire Control page Wildfires Fires in Massachusetts Natural disasters in Massachusetts Forest history Wildfires in the United States Environmental history of the United States

18992614

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2008%20Borjomi%20Wildfire

2008 Borjomi Wildfire

The 2008 Borjomi wildfires started in the Borjomi Gorge, Georgia on August 15, 2008 and lasted for several days to come, destroying of the Borjomi-Kharagauli National Park, one of the largest national parks in Europe. The fire started in the concluding days of the hostilities during the 2008 Russo-Georgian War, some 80 km far from the conflict area. Eyewitnesses reported camouflage-painted helicopters in the sky just before the fire erupted. Georgia accused Russia of bombing the area and deliberating starting a fire using incendiary devices, describing it as an ecocide. Russia's Defence Ministry denied bombing the forests and said that they would help the Georgians extinguish the fires if requested. Despite Turkish and Ukrainian aid, the firefighting efforts were complicated by the ongoing conflict and airspace restrictions. According to the government of Georgia, The Borjomi wildfire alarmed international environmental organizations. The World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) called on "all parties capable of helping put out forest fires in central Georgia to work together to extinguish them." The PAN Parks network, of which the Borjomi-Kharagauli National Park is a member, sent a latter to the Russian Minister of Natural Resources, expressing its concerns that the "recent bombing in Borjomi district resulted in a forest fire, which threatens Borjomi Kharagauli National Park." The World Bank expressed its "grave concern the reports of forest fires in the Borjomi area of Georgia" and sent an assessment team in the area. The Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe-UNEP mission will also assess the damage caused by fire, including in the Borjomi-Kharagauli National Park and adjacent forested areas. References External links Satellite images by UNOSAT Fires in Georgia (country) Natural disasters in Georgia (country) 2008 Borjomi wildfire 2008 in Georgia (country) 2008 wildfires August 2008 events in Asia 2008 disasters in Georgia (country) 2008 fires in Asia

19269543

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1996%20Pat%20Sin%20Leng%20wildfire

1996 Pat Sin Leng wildfire

The 1996 Pat Sin Leng wildfire took place in Pat Sin Leng, Tai Po, New Territories, Hong Kong on 10February, 1996 (Saturday). It was the worst wildfire in local history. The disaster killed three students and two teachers at the Hong Kong Chinese Women's Club Fung Yiu King Memorial Secondary School and injured a further 13 students. The Hong Kong Government built a "Spring Breeze Pavilion" on Pat Sin Leng to commemorate the two teachers who died saving the students in the tragedy. After the disaster, the area suffered from soil erosion, but the vegetation has since regrown. Background events On 10 February, 1996, 49 students of HKCWC Fung Yiu King Memorial Secondary School were led by five teachers in the "Golden Leg" Hiking activities which were held jointly by Geographic Society of the school and the Duke of Edinburgh Award Scheme (now Hong Kong Award for Young People). The plan was to hike from the Agriculture and Fisheries Department Plover Cove Country Park Visitor Centre to Hok Tau, Fanling via Section 9 and 10 of Wilson Trail on Pat Sin Leng. It was an extremely dry day with a relative humidity of 31 per cent. The Hong Kong Observatory had issued a Red Fire Danger Warning, warning of a very high risk of wildfires. The fire was discovered at about 11:20, just as the group was around 150 metres away from Hsien Ku Fung. The fire quickly spread upwards, out of control. As the downhill escape route was blocked by the fire, the group was forced to flee up hill. Thirty-two students escaped and raised the alarm; but 18 people were trapped in Ma Lau Ai (Monkey Cliff). Teachers Chow Chi-Tsai and Wong Shuo Mei perished attempting to help students escape, while other injured students were left on the cliff in wait for rescue. Rescue operation More than 200 staff and volunteers from the Hong Kong Fire Service department, Agriculture and Fisheries Department (AFD), and the Civil Aid Service (CAS) were dispatched and the search and rescue operation commenced at 12:23. The Government Flying Service (GFS) sent two helicopters to help fight the fire and rescue the severely injured. Rescuers provided first aid on the scene. Seriously injured victims were rushed to hospital by helicopters, while those with less severe injuries were carried away by the rescue crew. The first group of victims were sent to Tai Po Jockey Club Clinic. Ten seriously injured victims were transferred to the Prince of Wales Hospital in Sha Tin, which has a specialist burns unit. A female who suffered burns to 70 per cent of her skin was rushed to the intensive care unit for advance treatment. Government Flying Service rescue accident An unusual incident occurred with the Government Flying Service's helicopter in the rescue operation. Two casualties were spotted when crew members landed using the helicopter's winch sling. In accordance with the Code of Practice, they fastened their safety belt before pulling the victims onto the helicopter. However, due to his sight being obscured by the smoke, the pilot was unable to see the victims. The helicopter succeeded only in lifting the rescuer as it climbed, as the harness was not properly fastened around the casualties. The helicopter returned to rescue two casualties, who were thought to be those who fell during previous rescue, but they were proved mistaken. The next day, rescuers found the last missing person, and found he was one of the victims who fell in the initial rescue attempt. Casualties and damage The wildfire burnt for over 40 hours. At 11:00 the following day, all fires were extinguished. Casualties: 5 (Teacher Chow Chi-Tsai, Wong Shuo Mei and three students) Injured: 13 Burnt area: 20 hectares Post-disaster review The Coroner's Court hearings were held in May 1996. The coroner believed that the fire was caused by students smoking. The court also noted that the teacher-student ratio was 1 to 12, less than the 1 to 10 standard. The teachers also did not have appropriate telecommunication devices. Some criticised the procedure that ambulances had to carry patients to the nearest emergency department, before transferring patients to a better-equipped hospital, prolonging the journey by four kilometres and delaying treatment. Furthermore, The Tai Po Jockey Club Clinic (the only medical centre in Tai Po at the time) lacked the ability to handle any large-scale crisis. Another criticism was that the Hong Kong Government's emergency Co-ordination Centre was not in operation during this incident, hence the search and rescue effort was somewhat lacking in co-ordination. References 1990s fires in Asia 1996 fires 1996 in Hong Kong Fires in Hong Kong 1996 natural disasters 1990s wildfires Wildfires in China 1996 disasters in Asia

19326649

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HMS%20Wildfire

HMS Wildfire

Five ships and a number of shore establishments of the British Royal Navy have borne the name HMS Wildfire: Ships was a fireship, previously the civilian vessel John, built 1766. She was purchased in 1804 and sold in 1807. was a wood paddle packet, previously the GPO ship Watersprite. She was launched in 1826, transferred to the Navy in 1837 and was sold in 1888. was a screw yacht tender purchased in 1888. She was used as a base ship from 1889 and was renamed HMS Undine in 1907. She was sold in 1912. Shore establishments was a shore establishment established at Sheerness in 1889. It closed in 1933 but re-opened in 1937. It was paid off in 1950. A number of ships were renamed HMS Wildfire whilst serving as base and depot ships for the establishment: was the original base ship from 1889 until 1907. was HMS Wildfire from 1906 until 1916. was HMS Wildfire between 1916 and 1957. was a communications training establishment and Royal Naval Reserve headquarters in Chatham (Gillingham) commissioned in 1964 and paid off in 1993. is a Maritime Reserves (Royal Navy) unit located in Northwood. It was previously named HMS Northwood but was renamed HMS Wildfire in 2000. Other shore establishments have been commissioned as tenders and subordinate bases to the main HMS Wildfires, and have shared the name, with an identifying numeral: HMS Wildfire II was an accounting base at Sheerness between 1939 and 1940. HMS Wildfire III was an accounting base at Sheerness in 1940. HMS Wildfire III was the commanding officer's base and a tender to HMS Wildfire between 1942 and 1946. External links Short history of HMS Wildfire one to seven Short history of HMS Wildfire eight Royal Navy ship names

19626445

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wildfire%20Wildfire

Wildfire Wildfire

Wildfire Wildfire Records is an American independent record label based in Baltimore, Maryland. History The Wildfire Wildfire project was founded in 2005 by Devon Deimler, Matthew Papich, and Michael Petruzzo while students at the Maryland Institute College of Art in Baltimore, MD. While there, Deimler and Papich became friends with many musicians of different influences and were inspired to collaborate and curate shows according to their own aesthetic. A website was created and managed to announce independent local shows of their liking and often featured drawings of local bands as a visual element. In 2006, Wildfire Wildfire became a record label as well, intending their first release to be a Baltimore mixtape by Cex. In addition to releasing records, Wildfire Wildfire has also hosted dozens of DIY music shows, many notably at the warehouse space Floristree in downtown Baltimore. In 2007, they collaborated with Dan Deacon to curate and host the Whartscape Festival, and in 2008 collaborated with Floristree to present Full House Festival, which included a performance by the Krautrock band Cluster. Matthew Papich is also a founding member of Ecstatic Sunshine and is currently the band's only permanent member. Manifesto On their website, Wildfire Wildfire lists their influences as 60s zine culture and its art world crossover, along with an early DIY punk rock ethos. Notes Deimler, such a combination allows the label "to release music and artwork important to our generation of experimentation". Poster design and multimedia elements beyond music are often incorporated into Wildfire-curated shows, blurring the line between the art and music world. Wildfire Wildfire illustration, media, and poster design have become a staple in the burgeoning Baltimore experimental music scene Catalog WFWF001 - Santa Dads Anima Mundi CD WFWF002 - Thank You World City CD WFWF003 - Dan Deacon Spiderman of the Rings LP WFWF004 - Video Hippos Unbeast the Leash LP WFWF005 - OCDJ Hooray CD WFWF006 - Ecstatic Sunshine Living EP + CD WFWF007 - Cex Dannibal LP WFWF008 - Sandcats / Car Clutch Friendship/Trip01 Split 7" WFWF009 - Lucky Dragons / Ecstatic Sunshine Friendship/Trip02 Split 7" WFWF010 - Dustin Wong Seasons LP (June 2009) WFWF011 - Jason Willett / Jason Urick Friendship/Trip03 Split 7" External links Wildfire Wildfire - official site Notes American independent record labels Record labels based in Maryland

20115268

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wildfire%20modeling

Wildfire modeling

Wildfire modeling is concerned with numerical simulation of wildfires to comprehend and predict fire behavior. Wildfire modeling aims to aid wildfire suppression, increase the safety of firefighters and the public, and minimize damage. Wildfire modeling can also aid in protecting ecosystems, watersheds, and air quality. Using computational science, wildfire modeling involves the statistical analysis of past fire events to predict spotting risks and front behavior. Various wildfire propagation models have been proposed in the past, including simple ellipses and egg- and fan-shaped models. Early attempts to determine wildfire behavior assumed terrain and vegetation uniformity. However, the exact behavior of a wildfire's front is dependent on a variety of factors, including wind speed and slope steepness. Modern growth models utilize a combination of past ellipsoidal descriptions and Huygens' Principle to simulate fire growth as a continuously expanding polygon. Extreme value theory may also be used to predict the size of large wildfires. However, large fires that exceed suppression capabilities are often regarded as statistical outliers in standard analyses, even though fire policies are more influenced by large wildfires than by small fires. Objectives Wildfire modeling attempts to reproduce fire behavior, such as how quickly the fire spreads, in which direction, how much heat it generates. A key input to behavior modeling is the Fuel Model, or type of fuel, through which the fire is burning. Behavior modeling can also include whether the fire transitions from the surface (a "surface fire") to the tree crowns (a "crown fire"), as well as extreme fire behavior including rapid rates of spread, fire whirls, and tall well-developed convection columns. Fire modeling also attempts to estimate fire effects, such as the ecological and hydrological effects of the fire, fuel consumption, tree mortality, and amount and rate of smoke produced. Environmental factors Wildland fire behavior is affected by weather, fuel characteristics, and topography. Weather influences fire through wind and moisture. Wind increases the fire spread in the wind direction, higher temperature makes the fire burn faster, while higher relative humidity, and precipitation (rain or snow) may slow it down or extinguish it altogether. Weather involving fast wind changes can be particularly dangerous, since they can suddenly change the fire direction and behavior. Such weather includes cold fronts, foehn winds, thunderstorm downdrafts, sea and land breeze, and diurnal slope winds. Wildfire fuel includes grass, wood, and anything else that can burn. Small dry twigs burn faster while large logs burn slower; dry fuel ignites more easily and burns faster than wet fuel. Topography factors that influence wildfires include the orientation toward the sun, which influences the amount of energy received from the sun, and the slope (fire spreads faster uphill). Fire can accelerate in narrow canyons and it can be slowed down or stopped by barriers such as creeks and roads. These factors act in combination. Rain or snow increases the fuel moisture, high relative humidity slows the drying of the fuel, while winds can make fuel dry faster. Wind can change the fire-accelerating effect of slopes to effects such as downslope windstorms (called Santa Anas, foehn winds, East winds, depending on the geographic location). Fuel properties may vary with topography as plant density varies with elevation or aspect with respect to the sun. It has long been recognized that "fires create their own weather." That is, the heat and moisture created by the fire feed back into the atmosphere, creating intense winds that drive the fire behavior. The heat produced by the wildfire changes the temperature of the atmosphere and creates strong updrafts, which can change the direction of surface winds. The water vapor released by the fire changes the moisture balance of the atmosphere. The water vapor can be carried away, where the latent heat stored in the vapor is released through condensation. Approaches Like all models in computational science, fire models need to strike a balance between fidelity, availability of data, and fast execution. Wildland fire models span a vast range of complexity, from simple cause and effect principles to the most physically complex presenting a difficult supercomputing challenge that cannot hope to be solved faster than real time. Forest-fire models have been developed since 1940 to the present, but a lot of chemical and thermodynamic questions related to fire behaviour are still to be resolved. Scientists and their forest fire models from 1940 till 2003 are listed in article. Models can be divided into three groups: Empirical, Semi-empirical, and Physically based. Empirical models Conceptual models from experience and intuition from past fires can be used to anticipate the future. Many semi-empirical fire spread equations, as in those published by the USDA Forest Service, Forestry Canada, Nobel, Bary, and Gill, and Cheney, Gould, and Catchpole for Australasian fuel complexes have been developed for quick estimation of fundamental parameters of interest such as fire spread rate, flame length, and fireline intensity of surface fires at a point for specific fuel complexes, assuming a representative point-location wind and terrain slope. Based on the work by Fons's in 1946, and Emmons in 1963, the quasi-steady equilibrium spread rate calculated for a surface fire on flat ground in no-wind conditions was calibrated using data of piles of sticks burned in a flame chamber/wind tunnel to represent other wind and slope conditions for the fuel complexes tested. Two-dimensional fire growth models such as FARSITE and Prometheus, the Canadian wildland fire growth model designed to work in Canadian fuel complexes, have been developed that apply such semi-empirical relationships and others regarding ground-to-crown transitions to calculate fire spread and other parameters along the surface. Certain assumptions must be made in models such as FARSITE and Prometheus to shape the fire growth. For example, Prometheus and FARSITE use the Huygens principle of wave propagation. A set of equations that can be used to propagate (shape and direction) a fire front using an elliptical shape was developed by Richards in 1990. Although more sophisticated applications use a three-dimensional numerical weather prediction system to provide inputs such as wind velocity to one of the fire growth models listed above, the input was passive and the feedback of the fire upon the atmospheric wind and humidity are not accounted for. Physically based models and coupling with the atmosphere A simplified physically based two-dimensional fire spread models based upon conservation laws that use radiation as the dominant heat transfer mechanism and convection, which represents the effect of wind and slope, lead to reaction–diffusion systems of partial differential equations. More complex physical models join computational fluid dynamics models with a wildland fire component and allow the fire to feed back upon the atmosphere. These models include NCAR's Coupled Atmosphere-Wildland Fire-Environment (CAWFE) model developed in 2005, WRF-Fire at NCAR and University of Colorado Denver which combines the Weather Research and Forecasting Model with a spread model by the level-set method, University of Utah's Coupled Atmosphere-Wildland Fire Large Eddy Simulation developed in 2009, Los Alamos National Laboratory's FIRETEC developed in, the WUI (wildland–urban interface) Fire Dynamics Simulator (WFDS) developed in 2007, and, to some degree, the two-dimensional model FIRESTAR. These tools have different emphases and have been applied to better understand the fundamental aspects of fire behavior, such as fuel inhomogeneities on fire behavior, feedbacks between the fire and the atmospheric environment as the basis for the universal fire shape, and are beginning to be applied to wildland urban interface house-to-house fire spread at the community-scale. The cost of added physical complexity is a corresponding increase in computational cost, so much so that a full three-dimensional explicit treatment of combustion in wildland fuels by direct numerical simulation (DNS) at scales relevant for atmospheric modeling does not exist, is beyond current supercomputers, and does not currently make sense to do because of the limited skill of weather models at spatial resolution under 1 km. Consequently, even these more complex models parameterize the fire in some way, for example, papers by Clark use equations developed by Rothermel for the USDA forest service to calculate local fire spread rates using fire-modified local winds. And, although FIRETEC and WFDS carry prognostic conservation equations for the reacting fuel and oxygen concentrations, the computational grid cannot be fine enough to resolve the reaction rate-limiting mixing of fuel and oxygen, so approximations must be made concerning the subgrid-scale temperature distribution or the combustion reaction rates themselves. These models also are too small-scale to interact with a weather model, so the fluid motions use a computational fluid dynamics model confined in a box much smaller than the typical wildfire. Attempts to create the most complete theoretical model were made by Albini F.A. in USA and Grishin A.M. in Russia. Grishin's work is based on the fundamental laws of physics, conservation and theoretical justifications are provided. The simplified two-dimensional model of running crown forest fire was developed in Belarusian State University by Barovik D.V. and Taranchuk V.B. Data assimilation Data assimilation periodically adjusts the model state to incorporate new data using statistical methods. Because fire is highly nonlinear and irreversible, data assimilation for fire models poses special challenges, and standard methods, such as the ensemble Kalman filter (EnKF) do not work well. Statistical variability of corrections and especially large corrections may result in nonphysical states, which tend to be preceded or accompanied by large spatial gradients. In order to ease this problem, the regularized EnKF penalizes large changes of spatial gradients in the Bayesian update in EnKF. The regularization technique has a stabilizing effect on the simulations in the ensemble but it does not improve much the ability of the EnKF to track the data: The posterior ensemble is made out of linear combinations of the prior ensemble, and if a reasonably close location and shape of the fire cannot be found between the linear combinations, the data assimilation is simply out of luck, and the ensemble cannot approach the data. From that point on, the ensemble evolves essentially without regard to the data. This is called filter divergence. So, there is clearly a need to adjust the simulation state by a position change rather than an additive correction only. The morphing EnKF combines the ideas of data assimilation with image registration and morphing to provide both additive and position correction in a natural manner, and can be used to change a model state reliably in response to data. Limitations and practical use The limitations on fire modeling are not entirely computational. At this level, the models encounter limits in knowledge about the composition of pyrolysis products and reaction pathways, in addition to gaps in basic understanding about some aspects of fire behavior such as fire spread in live fuels and surface-to-crown fire transition. Thus, while more complex models have value in studying fire behavior and testing fire spread in a range of scenarios, from the application point of view, FARSITE and Palm-based applications of BEHAVE have shown great utility as practical in-the-field tools because of their ability to provide estimates of fire behavior in real time. While the coupled fire-atmosphere models have the ability to incorporate the ability of the fire to affect its own local weather, and model many aspects of the explosive, unsteady nature of fires that cannot be incorporated in current tools, it remains a challenge to apply these more complex models in a faster-than-real-time operational environment. Also, although they have reached a certain degree of realism when simulating specific natural fires, they must yet address issues such as identifying what specific, relevant operational information they could provide beyond current tools, how the simulation time could fit the operational time frame for decisions (therefore, the simulation must run substantially faster than real time), what temporal and spatial resolution must be used by the model, and how they estimate the inherent uncertainty in numerical weather prediction in their forecast. These operational constraints must be used to steer model development. See also Catastrophe modeling Extreme value theory Fuel model References External links PROMETHEUS fire growth simulator WRF-Fire Wildfire Visualizations collected links Wildfire simulations on Youtube Wildfire visualizations at NCAR Coupled Weather-Wildfire Modeling - Basic aspects of wildfire behavior Coupled Weather-Wildfire Modeling - Wildfire Case Studies Fire research links Why are wildfires defying long-standing computer models? September 2012 Wildfire prevention Wildfire suppression Computational physics Firefighting Sustainable forest management Mathematical modeling Numerical climate and weather models Wildfire ecology

21457861

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wildfire%20Games

Wildfire Games

Wildfire Games is an independent free software video game developer, originally founded as a modding team in 2001. The logo is the Chinese character "火" (fire). Wildfire Games is currently developing 0 A.D., a real-time strategy game. In addition to game development, Wildfire Games has developed the Pyrogenesis game engine used in 0 A.D. and separate mods. History Wildfire Games began as a game modding studio for Age of Empires II. An idea for a mod, 0 A.D., became an independent game due to the limitations of Age of Empires. Awards Top 100 Best Mods and Indies of 2008 References External links Video game development companies Video game companies established in 2002

21468851

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2004%20Alaska%20wildfires

2004 Alaska wildfires

The 2004 Alaska fire season was the worst wildfire season on record in the U.S. state of Alaska in terms of area burned. Though the 1989 fire season recorded more fires, nearly 1,000, the 2004 season burned more than 6,600,000 acres (10,300 sq mi; 27,000 km2) in just 701 fires. The largest of these fires was the Taylor Complex Fire. This fire consumed over and was the deemed to be the largest fire in the United States from at least 1997 to 2019. Out of all 701 fires, 426 fires were started by humans and 215 by lightning. Causes of the fires Beginning in May 2004, the summer was extremely warm and wet in comparison to typical Interior Alaska summer climate. Much of the rain over the summer of 2004 came during thunderstorms, which resulted in record amounts of lightning triggering many of the original fires near Fairbanks, Alaska. Wildfires are prone to develop in areas with frequent lightning strikes. After months of lightning and increased temperatures, an uncharacteristically dry August resulted in fires continuing through September. Impacts on climate change and landscape Alaska has a climate that of the boreal zone, more commonly known as taiga. The boreal zone, across the globe, makes up more than 25% of global forests, and when wildfires occur it is a top leader in carbon emissions. Approximately 12% of the world's carbon is stored in top layer soil and this part is the first to burn in any wildfire. These emissions have some of the greatest impacts on natural carbon balance, and Alaska gives its fair contribution. Typically Alaskan forest fires make up 41% of the United States' carbon emissions from wildland fires, but more recently with warming conditions and more wildfire occurrences these figures have gone all the way to 89%. Landscape is also changing as a result of wildfires. Less canopy is provided in the aftermath of a wildfire, hence soil temperatures may rise, rendering the area uninhabitable by certain species and allow new, non-native species to thrive. When soil temperatures rise, permafrost is also revealed and begins to melt away, which can lead to landslides and erosion. Impacts on air quality The 2004 fire season of Alaska had large impacts on the air quality and safety of nearby populations. These impacts most significant in Fairbanks, Alaska. For over 15 days, particulate matter measured 1,000 micrograms per cubic meter, well over the EPA thresholds for hazardous and unhealthy air quality. To put it into perspective, an area deemed to be unhealthy typically has 65 micrograms of smoke particulate per cubic meter, while an area deemed to be hazardous has anymore than 250 micrograms per cubic meter. Normal levels in Fairbanks, Alaska are typically 10 micrograms per cubic meter. The main issue with smoke particulate is not the smoke itself but the matter that is mixed in. Wildfire smoke is usually made up of acids, chemicals, metals, soil/dust, and pollen/mold spores. External links The U.S. Wildlife and Fisheries outlines potential dangers of the new wildfire fuels that are populating Alaska. The University of Alaska Fairbanks shows graphical data pertaining to the amount of land burned and past wildfires in Alaska. References https://www.nifc.gov/fireInfo/fireInfo_stats_lgFires.html 2004 wildfires in the United States Wildfires in Alaska 2004 in Alaska

21912100

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evans%20Road%20Wildfire

Evans Road Wildfire

The Evans Road Wildfire was a smoldering peat fire in Eastern North Carolina that started on June 1, 2008 by lightning strike during North Carolina's drought - the worst on record. It burned inside the Pocosin Lakes National Wildlife Refuge and burned for three months. The wildlife refuge is located in the Albemarle-Pamlico Peninsula, where many forest fires are prone to start because of several ecological factors. The area is densely populated by trees, which makes it easy for fires to spread quickly; a layer of shrubs and dead plant material on the ground serve as fuel for fires. Under this layer, the pocosin soil is high in organic material, which acts as a charcoal-like substance that helps fires start. 450 firefighters battled it. 71 high capacity pumps moved billions of gallons of water. References External links of the peat fire 2008 wildfires in the United States Fires in North Carolina Natural disasters in North Carolina 2008 in North Carolina June 2008 events in the United States

23424510

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Woodill%20Wildfire

Woodill Wildfire

The Woodill Wildfire was an American sports car built by Dodge and Willys dealer Blanchard Robert "Woody" Woodill from 1952 to 1958 in Downey, California. The Wildfire used a Glasspar fiberglass body and is credited with being the first complete fiberglass car available with approximately 15 produced and another 285 sold as kits. A child's version of the vehicle called the Brushfire was also available. In September 2012 a Woodill Wildfire was featured on the Discovery Channel TV show Fast N' Loud. According to the show, theirs was one of only nine factory-built Wildfires still known to exist. The show's host sold the car to a collector for $100,500. Payment for the car consisted of ten $10,000 stacks of $100 bills and a 1934 $500 bill, the latter of which in itself is worth more than its face value. See also References External links Woodill Wildfire History of the Woodill Wildfire by Frederick J. Roth Sports cars Defunct motor vehicle manufacturers of the United States

23564464

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20wildfire%20suppression%20in%20the%20United%20States

History of wildfire suppression in the United States

Wildfire suppression in the United States has had a long and varied history. For most of the 20th century, any form of wildland fire, whether it was naturally caused or otherwise, was quickly suppressed for fear of uncontrollable and destructive conflagrations such as the Peshtigo Fire in 1871 and the Great Fire of 1910. In the 1960s, policies governing wildfire suppression changed due to ecological studies that recognized fire as a natural process necessary for new growth. Today, policies advocating complete fire suppression have been exchanged for those who encourage wildland fire use, or the allowing of fire to act as a tool, such as the case with controlled burns. Fire Suppression and Settler Colonialism Native American use of fire in ecosystems are part of the environmental cycles and maintenance of wildlife habitats that sustain the cultures and economies of the Indigenous peoples of the Americas. Indigenous peoples have used burning practices to manage, protect, and relate to their surrounds since time immemorial. According to sociologist Kari Norgaard: "Indigenous peoples have long set low-intensity fires to manage eco-cultural resources and reduce the buildup of fuels – flammable trees, grasses and brush – that cause larger, hotter and more dangerous fires, like the ones that have burned across the West in recent years. Before fire suppression, forests in the West experienced a mix of low- to high-severity fires for millennia. Large, high-severity fires played an important ecological role, yet their spread was limited by low-severity fires set by indigenous peoples" However, "Fire suppression was mandated by the very first session of the California Legislature in 1850," and with the institution of the Weeks Act in 1911, "cultural uses of fire" were essentially made "illegal and for the many decades following, less and less burning occurred while more and more vegetation grew. Over a century of policies of fire suppression have created the conditions for the catastrophic, high-intensity wildfires we are seeing today" according to the Karuk Tribe of Northern California's Climate Adaptation Plan. Because many Indigenous groups viewed fire as a tool for ecosystem management, education, and a way of life, such suppression would lead to decreased food availability and breakdown of social and familial structures. It has been argued by numerous scholars that such suppression should be seen as a form of "Colonial Ecological Violence," "which results in particular risks and harms experienced by Native peoples and communities." Eventually, without small-scale managerial fires set by Indigenous peoples, wildfires would grow in size and severity because of buildup of vegetation on the forest floor in combination with Climate change. As the U.S. Forest Service and environmental scientists come to understand the long-term damage that such suppression has done, Indigenous peoples have provided the Forest Service a better understanding of how traditional burning practices are necessary for forests and people. 19th century and early firefighting In the eastern United States, with its significant rainfall, wildfires are relatively small and have rarely posed great risk to life and property. As settlements moved further west into drier areas, the first large scale fires were encountered. Range fires on the Great Plains and forest fires in the Rocky Mountains were far larger and more destructive than what had ever been seen in the east. Yellowstone National Park was established in 1872 as the world's first national park. For the next several years, administration of the park languished until 1886 when the U. S. Army was assigned the responsibility for its protection. Upon its arrival in the park, the Army found numerous fires burning in developed areas as well as in areas where it was not reasonable to control them. The commanding officer decided that human-caused fires along roads posed the biggest threat and that the Army would concentrate its suppression efforts on the control of those fires. There were not enough soldiers to fight all of the fires. Thus, came the first conscious decision by a manager of federal land to allow some fires to burn while others were controlled. The policy of fire suppression was also applied to Sequoia, General Grant, and Yosemite national parks when they were established in 1890, and Army patrols were initiated to guard against fires, livestock trespass, and illegal logging. A number of catastrophic fire events over the years greatly influenced fire management policies. The worst loss of life in United States history due to a wildfire occurred in 1871 when the Peshtigo Fire swept through Wisconsin, killing more than 1500 people. The Santiago Canyon Fire of 1889 in California and especially the Great Fire of 1910 in Montana and Idaho contributed to the philosophy that fire was a danger that needed to be suppressed. The Great Fire of 1910 had burned , destroyed a number of communities and killed 86 people, and this event prompted various land management agencies to emphasize wildfire suppression. U.S. Government land agencies, including the National Park Service, generally followed the fire management policies established by the U.S. Forest Service, which oversees the majority of the nation's forestlands. (See "The Big Burn" a 2014 PBS documentary American Experience (season 27)). This would lead to the passage of the 1911 Weeks Act. Suppression as a rule Before the middle of the 20th century, most forest managers believed that fires should be suppressed at all times. By 1935, the U.S. Forest Service's fire management policy stipulated that all wildfires were to be suppressed by 10 am the morning after they were first spotted. Fire fighting crews were established throughout public lands, and generally staffed by young men during fire seasons. By 1940, firefighters known as smokejumpers would parachute out of airplanes to extinguish flames in remote locations. By the beginning of World War II, over 8,000 fire lookout towers had been constructed in the United States. Though many have been torn down due to increased use of airplanes for fire spotting, three are still used each year in Yellowstone. Firefighting efforts were highly successful, with the area burned by wildfires reduced from an annual average of during the 1930s, to between and by the 1960s. The need for lumber during World War II was high and fires that destroyed timberland were deemed unacceptable. In 1944, the U.S. Forest Service developed an ad campaign to help educate the public that all fires were detrimental, using a cartoon black bear named Smokey Bear. This iconic firefighting bear can still be seen on posters with the catchphrase "Only you can prevent wildfires". Early posters of Smokey Bear misled the public into believing that western wildfires were predominantly human-caused. In Yellowstone, human-caused fires average between 6 and 10 annually, while 35 wildfires are ignited by lightning. Some researchers, as well as some timber companies and private citizens, understood that fire was a natural state of affairs in many ecosystems. Fire would help clean out the understory and dead plant matter, allowing economically important tree species to grow with less competition for nutrients. Native Americans would often burn woodlands to reduce overgrowth and increase grasslands for large prey animals such as bison and elk. When the U.S. Forest Service was established in 1905, it became the primary task of the Forest Service to suppress all fires on the forest reserves it administered. In 1916, the National Park Service was established and took over park management from the Army. Following the Forest Service approach, fire suppression became the only fire policy and remained in the national parks for the next five decades. Some foresters questioned the economic logic of such suppression efforts. However, the extensive fires of 1910 solidified the Forest Service as the premier fire control organization and fire suppression remained the only fire policy for all federal land management agencies until the late 1960s. Complete fire suppression was the objective, even though these early efforts were less than successful until the advent of vehicles, equipment, and roads (see Fire trail) during the 1940s. As early as 1924, environmentalist Aldo Leopold argued that wildfires were beneficial to ecosystems, and were necessary for the natural propagation of numerous tree and plant species. Over the next 40 years, increasing numbers of foresters and ecologists concurred about the benefits of wildfire to ecosystems. Some managers allowed low intensity fires to spread in remote areas unless they threatened valuable resources or facilities, but by 1934 a policy of extinguishing all fires by 10:00 am of the next burning period was implemented. This resulted in the buildup of fuels in some ecosystems such as ponderosa pine and Douglas fir forests. Changes to policy The policy began to be questioned in the 1960s, when it was realized that no new giant sequoia had grown in the forests of California, because fire is an essential part of their life cycle. In 1962, Secretary of the Interior Stewart Udall assembled a Special Advisory Board on Wildlife Management to look into wildlife management problems in the national parks. This Advisory Board wrote what is now referred to as the Leopold Report, named after its chair, zoologist and conservationist A. Starker Leopold, which did not confine its report to wildlife, but took the broader ecological view that parks should be managed as ecosystems. The passage of the 1964 Wilderness Act encouraged the allowance of natural processes to occur, including fire. Afterwards, the National Park Service changed its policy in 1968 to recognize fire as an ecological process. Fires were to be allowed to run their courses as long as they could be contained within fire management units and accomplished approved management objectives. Several parks established fire use programs, and policies were gradually changed from fire control to fire management. The Forest Service enacted similar measures in 1974 by changing its policy from fire control to fire management, allowing lightning fires to burn in wilderness areas. This included both naturally caused fire and intentional prescribed fire. In 1978, the Forest Service abandoned the 10:00 am policy in favor of a new policy that encouraged the use of wildland fire by prescription. Three events between 1978 and 1988 precipitated a major fire use policy review in 1989: the Ouzel Fire in Rocky Mountain National Park, the Yellowstone fires of 1988 in and around Yellowstone National Park, and the Canyon Creek fire in the Bob Marshall Wilderness on the Lewis and Clark National Forest. In all three cases, monitored fires burned until they threatened developed areas. While none of the Yellowstone fires of 1988 were caused by controlled burns, later investigations proved the fire use policy was appropriate, though needing strengthening and improvement. The Secretaries of Agriculture and the Interior convened a fire policy review team to evaluate the National Park Service and Forest Service wilderness fire policies. The team reaffirmed the fundamental importance of fire’s natural role but recommended that fire management plans be strengthened by establishing clear decision criteria and accountability, and that interagency cooperation be improved. Wildland fire use programs restarted slowly after the 1989 review. Eventually the Forest Service and National Park Service programs began to grow as the number of fires and area burned increased. 21st Century Suppressive action taken during the South Canyon Fire, which was ignited by lightning in a fire exclusion zone on July 2, 1994, caused controversy after a blow-up killed 14 firefighters two days after the initial blaze. An interagency team was formed and issued their report in August. They cited several direct and contributory causes of the fatalities including fire behavior, personnel profiles, and incident management procedures. The South Canyon incident led to the first comprehensive review and update of federal wildland fire policy in decades. The report reiterated that the first priority of all federal wildland fire programs was firefighter and public safety. With regard to prescribed fires and prescribed natural fires, the report stated that, "Wildland fire will be used to protect, maintain, and enhance resources and, as nearly as possible, be allowed to function in its natural ecological role." In 1998, a new procedures guide used the term "wildland fire use" to describe what had previously been prescribed natural fires. By the end of the decade, a 1995 policy had reinvigorated “wildland fire use” programs and given managers the support they needed to enable the programs to continue to grow and mature. Fire management benefits began to appear, such as the 2000 Hash Rock fire which burned almost all of the Mill Creek Wilderness on the Ochoco National Forest in Oregon before it was suppressed. When the wildfire reached the 1996 Mill Creek fire, which had been managed under the wildland fire use program, it went out. Use of fire presently varies in various federal agencies, partially due to differing influences such as land proximity to urban areas. In response to growing threats of fire in California, Jackie Fielder, an indigenous organizer and politician, proposed the creation of an indigenous wildfire task force as a part of her 2020 state senate campaign. The plan draws on ideas behind the Karuk tribeś work around cultural burning and climate adaptation, and would create a path for more cultural burning to take place. Bill Tripp, working directly with policy for the Karuk tribe, has noted more education and growing awareness of indigenous practices can lead to promising alternatives to modern-day fire suppression. The Karuk tribe have been a leader in restoring and expanding cultural burning in the American West, carrying out cultural burns in order to reduce wildfire risk and promote the growth of culturally important flora. Fielders proposal aims to reduce the threat of wildfire, as well as return more oversight of land management to indigenous people. It also has the potential to provide more job opportunities to indigenous and rural Californians. Fielder's campaign gained traction at least in part due to bold proposals like this. Scott Wiener, Fielder's opponent and current California State Senator for District 11, has stated that he is interested in supporting a task force similar to the one which Fielder proposed. This would represent a divergence from the incumbent's past approach, as Wiener's approach to wildfire management in the past has largely focused on shifting new construction away from the wildland urban interface. See also Smokejumpers Hotshot Crew Helitack References Further reading Egan, Timothy (September 7, 2010). "The Big Burn: Teddy Roosevelt and the Fire that Saved America". Mariner Books. . External links Fire and the U.S. Forest Service (Forest History Society USFS History Pages) Wildfire suppression Wildfire ecology

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wildfire%20suppression%20equipment%20and%20personnel

Wildfire suppression equipment and personnel

Wildfire suppression equipment and personnel is part of the science of fire fighting focusing on the use of specialized equipment, training and tactics to effectively control, surround and eventually extinguish a natural cover fire. There are several specially designed tools that through their function and user training, perform specialized tasks that are specific to natural cover firefighting. This is used together in conjunction with the general understanding of the behavior of fire to form a viable plan of attack. Personnel PPE or personal protective equipment is generally standardized for a certain type of team or crew. Smokejumpers for example require more protective equipment because of their method of delivery into the fire. Ordinarily, all firefighters regardless of assignment, require durable fire recommended eight inch (203 mm) minimum boots, gloves, Nomex pants and shirt (typically green pants and a yellow shirt), a hard hat (sometimes full brim), Walkie-talkie, potable water, eye protection (goggles) and a fire shelter. In the U.S., a firefighter's credentials and level of training is shown on their red card. For example, a sawyer will have a feller rating on their red card designating the capacity size tree they have been trained to fell. A firefighter trained as an EMT may have this certification on their card. Classes under the National Wildfire Coordinating Group (NWCG) and management qualification standards under the Interagency Fire Program Management (IFPM) are generally shown as well. At a minimum, the passing of the pack test is displayed showing the individual is physically able to perform appropriate duties. There are currently 2 wildland firefighter ratings. Firefighter Type 2, which is the basic firefighter qualification, and is required for most operational positions. The Firefighter Type 2 requires several introductory classes as well as a practical day in the field. The dispatch code for a Firefighter Type 2 is FFT2. The second rating is Firefighter Type 1. The Firefighter 1 rating requires advanced courses in wildland firefighting as well as acceptable performance as a FFT2. Firefighter Type 1 is considered to be a senior and seasoned wildland Firefighter. The dispatch code for Firefighter Type 1 is FFT1. Hand crews Typically, wildland firefighting organizations will use large handcrews of 20 or more people who travel in vehicles to the fire incident. Although these crews can vary above or below 20 firefighters, they are generally called twenty-man crews. The designations of these crews in the U.S., defined in large portion by training, are as follows: Some personnel are organized into fast attack teams typically consisting of five to eight personnel. Similar to the larger crews, they travel by vehicle. Smokejumpers Smokejumpers are highly skilled firefighters specially trained in wildfire suppression tactics. They parachute into remote areas from aircraft to combat wildfires and are equipped to work in remote areas for extended periods of time with little logistical support. Helitack The use of helicopter-delivered fire resources varies by agency. Often, helitack crews perform duties similar to other initial attack crews. Two or three firefighters will be dispatched to a newly reported fire. Helitack crews are usually used for initial attack on fires that are difficult for other firefighters to access, or on extended fires that require aerial support in the form of water drops, cargo delivery, crew shuttling, or reconnaissance. A typical initial attack response by a helitack crew involves flying to the fire via helicopter and spending one to three days (although sometimes much longer) putting the fire out before hiking to the nearest road for pickup. Rappellers A highly effective way to fight wilderness fire when no roads are nearby is to have wildland firefighters rappel from a helicopter. These firefighters then take suppressive action on the fire or clear a safe landing zone to receive additional firefighters if the fire is too large. Rappellers usually carry 30 pounds of personal gear plus up to 300 pounds of fire gear which is lowered down to them from their helicopter. Rappelling heights can range from 30 feet (in tall, continuous brush) to 250 feet (in timber). When suppression is complete on rappel fires, ground transport is typically arranged to pick up the firefighters at the nearest road. These crews carry chainsaws, hand tools, radios, and can even have water bags, known as blivets, flown in to help fight the fire. When not rappelling, the crew works as a helitack crew and can fly or hike to any regular fire. Vehicles Engines Wildland fire engine Crew transport Buggy or crummy Crew bus Tenders When water is required to refill a fire engine, water delivery is vital. The typical water tender carries of water to support fire engines. In addition to supplying fire engines directly, tenders may fill water reservoirs for bucket-dropping helicopters when a lake or reservoir is not nearby. Heavy equipment Heavy equipment's primary function of wildfire suppression is through the application of heavy construction style equipment to move large amounts or earth or remove vegetation. Fuel breaks, safety zones, firelines and access to areas that maybe previously were inaccessible may be made. Bulldozers and tractor plows are examples. Air suppression In addition to aircraft being used for deploying ground personnel, firefighting groups may utilize helicopters and fixed-wing airplanes specially equipped for use in aerial firefighting to douse areas that are inaccessible to vehicles with water and/or flame retardant chemicals. Fixed-wing airplanes Airtankers Lead aircraft Smokejumper transport aircraft Airlift aircraft Rotary-wing aircraft Helicopters (helitack & rappel) Helicopter (water delivery) Hand tools A number of tools are used in wildland firefighting. Some examples include: See also Glossary of wildfire terms Wildland Firefighter Foundation International Association of Wildland Fire Wildfire suppression References External links Survival zone minimum size Wildfire suppression

23668742

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shanta%20Creek%20Wildfire

Shanta Creek Wildfire

The Shanta Creek Wildfire was a lightning caused forest fire that started on June 29, 2009 in the Kenai National Wildlife Refuge on the Kenai Peninsula of Alaska. More than were burned and over 400 personnel were involved in the firefighting effort. Background During the late 1990s, the Kenai Peninsula was infested by spruce bark beetles. Many thousands of acres of spruce trees died as a result. Although the dead trees had subsequently been mostly removed from populated areas, there were still significant stands of dead trees in wilderness areas. Southcentral Alaska had been experiencing an unusually warm, dry summer that contributed to optimal conditions for a fire. Initially, firefighting efforts were not made due to the fire being naturally caused and located in a wilderness area that had been designated a "limited fire suppression area." Black spruce forests have a life cycle of about 70 years, while white spruce have a cycle of 100 years or more. The initial fire area had not burned since 1871, and therefore the burn was seen as natural and beneficial. The fire was monitored by the US Fish and Wildlife Service, which manages the refuge, and was allowed to grow unchecked to over . Firefighting efforts On July 9, the fire grew to over and began moving towards lightly populated areas outside of Kasilof and Soldotna. More resources were ordered to protect these areas. By June 11, over 400 persons were fighting the fire, and hotshot crews and bulldozers were utilized to create fire breaks. Air tankers and helicopters were also used to dump water and fire retardant near homes threatened by the fire. A temporary "tent city" was established at Skyview High School to house firefighters and support staff, and a no fly zone was established around the fire area. Smoke from the fire and others blazing simultaneously in Interior Alaska contributed to a visible haze of smoke over Anchorage and much of south-central Alaska. Fire managers began to take crews off the fire and reassign them after light but sustained rain fell on the fire for several days starting on July 18. By July 21, the fire had stopped expanding, and around 200 staff remained at the fire to monitor and conduct mop-up operations of remaining hot spots near populated areas. Aftermath On July 21, the fire was declared to be contained, and command and control were returned to the Refuge by federal fire managers. The total area burned at that time was . The overall cost of the firefighting effort was estimated at six million dollars. There were no deaths and no residences were burned. See also Mile 17 fire 2007 Caribou Hills fire Funny River Fire Swan Lake fire References Official press releases from Fish and Wildlife Service External links Official Kenai National Wildlife Refuge updates on the fire Map of the fire area (PDF format) 2009 in Alaska 2009 wildfires in the United States Kenai Peninsula Borough, Alaska Wildfires on the Kenai Peninsula Fires in Alaska

23743079

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2009%20Mediterranean%20wildfires

2009 Mediterranean wildfires

The 2009 Mediterranean wildfires were a series of wildfires that broke out across France, Greece, Italy, Spain, and Turkey in July 2009. Strong winds spread the fire during a hot, dry period of weather killing at least eight people, six of whom were in Spain. Some of the wildfires were caused by lightning, along with arson and military training. Effects Four Spanish firefighters died in Catalonia on 21 July, and a fifth member died later from injuries on 23 July, as well as a fire engine driver in Teruel. A further two people died from bush fires in Sardinia. More than 120 people were rescued at Capo Pecora on Sardinia by helicopter and civil protection boats. The Arenas prison complex was evacuated and the inmates were temporarily transferred to the beach. Northern and central Spain saw temperatures of around on 21 July. Around 2,000 people were evacuated from hills around the town of Collado Mediano, near Madrid. Aircraft with water and firefighters controlled the fire. Estimates suggest that 5,000 hectares of forest and bush were affected in the Sierra Cabrera mountain range between Turre and Mojácar in Spain on 14–15 July. 500 people were evacuated, as dozens of firefighters and soldiers controlled the fires, including the use of five helicopters and three aircraft. On 23 July, the fires on the Sierra Cabrera on which Mojácar sits flared again, causing damage to the village and other houses in the area and the evacuation of around 1,500 residents. Outside the French city of Marseille, 1,300 hectares (3211 acres) were destroyed. In Corsica, wildfires led to the destruction of approximately 4,000 hectares (10,000 acres) of bush and forest resulting in the injuries of five firemen. More than 320 wildfires affected patches of forest across Greece, although they did affect buildings. Most of them were located on the island of Euboea and the southern Peloponnese. On 23 July, over 15 hectares of land were destroyed in a landfill site in Bodrum, southwestern Turkey. Over 200 volunteers and 100 firefighters tried to contain the fires across Turkey, which saw temperatures of on 25–26 July. Causes In the Mediterranean region, the current fire frequency due to human activity is considered much larger than the natural rate. 95% of forest fires in Spain are human-induced. The 2009 Mediterranean wildfires occurred during a particularly hot and dry summer period, increasing the risk of wildfires burning out of control once ignited. Temperatures peaked at in mainland Spain and reached in Gran Canaria. These conditions, combined with insufficient fire-fighting resources and an inadequate official response in some of the affected countries, exacerbated the extent of the damage. Uncontrolled legal and illegal scrub burning by farmers is a major cause of forest fires in the Mediterranean region. Arson, while still a significant factor, has diminished in Spain and Greece in recent years. Decreasing property values generally and the introduction of legislation in Spain to tackle the issue has diminished the financial incentive to illegally clear forested land for development by burning. Isolated cases of areas in Spain affected by fires caused by lightning strikes include Aragon (Spain), as reported by El Pais and Mojácar, as suggested by the Spanish Forest Fire Organisation (INFOCA). The wildfires outside of Marseille, France, were reported as being caused by military training using tracer bullets. The local government of Corsica believed the fires were caused by arson. References See also 2009 Greek forest fires Wildfires caused by arson Arson in Europe Mass murder in 2009 Mediterranean Wildfires, 2009 July 2009 crimes July 2009 events in Europe 2009 in France Fires in France Natural disasters in France Wildfires in Europe 2009 in Greece 2009 in Italy Fires in Italy Natural disasters in Italy 2009 in Spain Wildfires in Spain 2009 in Turkey Fires in Turkey Natural disasters in Turkey Wildfires in Asia Mediterranean 2009 disasters in Europe

24170568

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2009%20California%20wildfires

2009 California wildfires

The 2009 California wildfires were a series of 9,159 wildfires that were active in the US state of California, during the year 2009. The fires burned more than of land from early February through late November, due to Red Flag conditions, destroying hundreds of structures, injuring 134 people, and killing four. The wildfires also caused at least US$134.48 million in damage. Although the fires burned many different regions of California in August, the month was especially notable for several very large fires which burned in Southern California, despite being outside of the normal fire season for that region. The Station Fire, north of Los Angeles, was the largest and deadliest of these wildfires. It began in late August, and resulted in the devastation of of land as well as the death of two firefighters. Another large fire was the La Brea Fire, which burned nearly in Santa Barbara County earlier in the month. A state of emergency was also declared for the Lockheed Fire in Santa Cruz County, to the north. Fires Below is a list of all fires that exceeded during the 2009 fire season. The list is taken from CAL FIRE's list of large fires. Weather conditions Invasive, non-native vegetation dies and re-sprouts year after year creating an unnatural buildup of dead plant material. While periodic fires are natural, and many native plants depend upon fire to reproduce; the intensity and frequency of these fires is altered by the presence of non-natives. In Southern California, the normal wildfire season begins in October, with the arrival of the infamous Santa Ana winds, and it is unusual to see fires spread so rapidly during other times of year. However, temperatures throughout the southern part of the state exceeded 100 °F (38 °C) for much of late August. The combination of high temperatures, low humidity and a large quantity of tinder-dry fuel, some of which had not burnt for decades, allowed some of the normal fires to quickly explode out of control despite the lack of winds to spread the flames. These conditions, along with extreme terrain in many undeveloped areas that slowed access to burn areas, made firefighting difficult. Notable fires Dozens of fires burned throughout California in August 2009. Some of the most notable are listed here. Northern California Alameda County The Corral Fire began on August 13 along Corral Hollow Road, outside the Carnegie State Vehicular Recreation Area, near Tracy in Alameda County. It burned of dry grass before being fully contained on August 16. Mariposa County The Big Meadow Fire began on August 26 in Big Meadow, two miles (3 km) east of El Portal, just inside Yosemite National Park. As of September 4, this fire has burned in the Mariposa County section of Yosemite, resulting in the closure of several trails, campgrounds and the portion of State Highway 120 known as Tioga Road. The community of Foresta was evacuated but residents were allowed to return on September 4. The Big Meadow Fire is 96% contained as of September 6, with full containment expected by September 10. This blaze was the result of a prescribed burn gone out of control, leading some to question the judgment of Park authorities. Placer County The Mammoth Fire started on July 16 and burned in the American River Canyon and Mammoth Bar Recreation Area east of Auburn before it was contained on July 18. The fire closed the Foresthill Bridge, the highest bridge in California, for 2 days. It took 358 firefighters, 24 engines, and a helicopter to put out. The cause was undetermined as of July 18, 2009. The Foresthill Fire started on August 27 and burned along the American River Canyon near the Foresthill Bridge before it was contained on August 28. This fire is close to the location of the Mammoth Fire. The fire took over 100 firefighters, 10 engines, 3 airtankers (planes), and 2 helicopters to extinguish. The cause was undetermined as of August 28, 2009. The 49 Fire was a small but very destructive fire that began on August 30 and was fully contained by CalFire on September 1. Although it burned only , it destroyed 63 homes and 3 commercial structures in the unincorporated area of North Auburn in Placer County. The fire extensively damaged 3 more homes and 6 more businesses. The fire began along the east side of Highway 49, which led to the name 49 Fire. The fire quickly spread north and east. The fire spread so quickly that some residents barely escaped their burning homes. Auburn Municipal Airport was closed during the fire, which burned right up to the runway. The fire's cause is arson. The arsonist lit a second fire just east of the original fire 20 minutes after the first fire. This added to the destruction and fire spread. This was the second fire to burn the area in 5 years. Santa Cruz/Monterey/San Benito Counties The Lockheed Fire began on August 12 near the Lockheed Martin Space Systems campus in Santa Cruz County. A total of burned and thirteen structures were destroyed, including four seasonal cabins but no primary residences. No cause has been identified. The communities of Swanton and Bonny Doon were evacuated and a state of emergency was declared by Lieutenant Governor John Garamendi on August 14. State fire crews achieved 100% containment on August 23, at a cost of . Many hillsides burned by the Lockheed Fire had not burned since 1948 due to active fire suppression in the area. Some plant species endemic to the area, including the endangered Santa Cruz manzanita, propagate only after fire, potentially allowing these rare species to proliferate for the first time in decades. The Bryson Fire started from a mobile home fire on Bryson-Hesperia Road in the Monterey County town of Lockwood. It burned and five structures, including three homes, between August 26 and August 28. The Gloria Fire began on August 27 along Camphora Gloria Road near the town of Soledad. It burned in Monterey and San Benito counties, destroying a house and another structure before CalFire contained it on August 31 at a cost of US$4 million. The fire was set off by fireworks used to scare away birds outside of a winery and a criminal investigation is underway to determine who is responsible. The Loma Fire (October 25–27), (initially reported as 600 acres) began near Loma Prieta Way in Santa Clara County and spread to the Santa Cruz County area of Maymens Flat – Highland Road, Eureka Canyon and Ormsby. One residence destroyed with 160 structures threatened and evacuations in place for north Ormsby Cutoff until October 26. 1,742 firefighters with 4 injuries reported; cost $2.7 million. High winds contributed to the spread in the Summit area of the Santa Cruz Mountains in an area which had of rain on October 13. Yuba County The Yuba Fire was started after a red-tailed hawk flew into a power line on August 14, and burned before being contained on August 21 at a cost of US$12.1 million. Two residences in Yuba County burned and power lines transporting electricity from a hydroelectric facility were threatened. Southern California Los Angeles County The Morris Fire (August 25 – September 3, ) began near Morris Dam in the Angeles National Forest. This fire is thought to have been caused by arson. The Station Fire (August 26 – October 16, , 209 structures destroyed, including 89 homes) started in the Angeles National Forest near the U.S. Forest Service ranger station on the Angeles Crest Highway (State Highway 2). Two firefighters, Captain Tedmund Hall and Firefighter Specialist Arnie Quinones were killed on August 30 while attempting to escape the flames when their fire truck plunged off a cliff. San Bernardino County The Sheep Fire (October 3–10, ) started near Sheep Canyon Road near Lytle Creek east of Mount Baldy and west of the Cajon Pass in the San Gabriel Mountains. Mandatory evacuations were in place for all Wrightwood residents October 4–6; the fireline held at from Wrightwood homes. Five structures had been destroyed in the Lone Pine and Swarthout Canyon areas including one residence. Eight firefighters have been injured but no fatalities have been reported. Below-freezing temperatures in the mountain areas helped fire crews in containment on October 6. Suppression costs : $7,977,000. Santa Barbara County The Jesusita Fire was a wildfire that began at approximately 1:45 PM on May 5, 2009, in the hills of Santa Barbara, California. The fire burned , destroyed 80 homes and damaged 15 more before being 100% contained. The La Brea Fire began near La Brea Creek in Santa Barbara County, inside of Los Padres National Forest. The fire burned of chaparral between August 8 and August 22, but only destroyed two structures—a cabin and an unused ranger station. Ventura County The Guiberson Fire in Ventura County has burnt an estimated , destroying two outbuildings and injuring two firefighters. Governor Schwarzenegger declared a state of emergency. The fire, which started between Fillmore and Moorpark, has caused the evacuation of almost 600 homes in Meridian Hills and Bardsdale; about 1,000 structures were threatened, in addition to oil pipelines in the area. On September 27, the Guiberson Fire was 100% contained, after burning approximately . The cause of the fire is still unknown. References External links Current Fire Information . CAL FIRE (California Department of Forestry and Fire Protection) California fires, August 31, 2009. NOAA satellite image of Angeles National Forest (Station Fire), Big Meadow fire (northern California), and Mill Flat fire (Utah). Retrieved August 31, 2009. Higher res image 1280 x 1024 West coast wildfire smoke covering US Plains and Great Lakes states, 9/3/2009. NOAA satellite image. Retrieved September 7, 2009. Higher res image 1280 x 1024 California, 2009 Wildfires in California by year

26289828

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wildfire%20%281945%20film%29

Wildfire (1945 film)

Wildfire, also known as Wildfire: The Story of a Horse in the United Kingdom, is a 1945 American Cinecolor Western film directed by Robert Emmett Tansey and starring Bob Steele. It was an early film production from Robert L. Lippert. Cast Bob Steele as "Happy" Haye Sterling Holloway as "Alkali" Jones John Miljan as Pete Fanning Eddie Dean as Sheriff Johnny Deal Virginia Maples as Judy Gordon Sarah Padden as Aunt Agatha Gene Alsace as Henchman Buck Perry Francis Ford as Ezra Mills William Farnum as Judge Polson William 'Wee Willie' Davis as Henchman Moose Harris Soundtrack Eddie Dean – "On the Banks of the Sunny San Juan" (Written by Glenn Strange and Eddie Dean) Eddie Dean – "By the Sleepy Rio Grande" References External links 1945 films 1940s English-language films 1945 Western (genre) films Films about horses Cinecolor films American Western (genre) films Lippert Pictures films Films directed by Robert Emmett Tansey 1940s American films

26467522

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2010%20Guangxi%20Wildfire

2010 Guangxi Wildfire

The 2010 Guangxi Wildfire occurred in western Guangxi, China during that year's spring season. Background On Thursday, March 3, 2010, a wildfire ignited in the mountainous county of Longlin in Guangxi, China. Drought had already begun to impact the area previously, and the dry weather and lack of water contributed to the fire's success. The wildfire burned large volumes of forests and brush until it was finally put out six days and twenty-two hours later. Effects According to Longlin County's fire control headquarters, a day after its ignition the fire had already burned 1,400 Mu (or about 93 hectares or 229 acres) of forestland, with a front spanning 5.3 kilometers. The fire was also heading towards the Zhongshan National Nature Reserve, where over two hundred of the endangered black-necked pheasant lived and were at risk of being affected by the traveling flames. Along with the area's locals, over one hundred firefighters and a Mi-26 helicopter were employed to suppress the fire. After the fire was suppressed, the drought continued to worsen in the southern China region, especially in Guangxi. Two months after the fire, torrential rain caused flash floods and landslides in the same area. References Wildfires in China 2010 disasters in China 2010 wildfires March 2010 events in China

27447482

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HTC%20Wildfire

HTC Wildfire

The HTC Wildfire (also known as HTC Buzz) is a smartphone developed by the HTC Corporation, that was announced on 17 May 2010 and released in Europe in June of the same year. It is powered by a 528 MHz Qualcomm processor and runs the Android operating system, version 2.2. It includes a TFT LCD capacitive touchscreen and a 5-megapixel camera. It has been described as a "Mini HTC Desire", and is perceived to be a follow-up model to the previous year's Tattoo. The CDMA version of HTC Wildfire (also known as HTC Bee) was released in 29 October 2010, replacing GSM and HSPA with CDMA and EVDO connection technologies. It is bigger than the GSM version and the display has 256,000 colors. Availability It was being available via various mobile network operators in Europe, including the UK and Ireland. In Australia, the carrier announced was Telstra. The Telstra branded HTC Wildfire is a special version supporting 850 MHz/2100 MHz UMTS, with the model number A3335. In Taiwan, the carrier announced was Taiwan Mobile. In Malaysia, the carrier announced was Maxis. In Mexico, the carrier announced was Iusacell; however, it was incorrectly marked as the HTC Desire A. It was being available in Russia from 22 July 2010. In Turkey, availability is uncertain. Name The name "Wildfire" was decided in a poll on Facebook, which resulted in 50% of the votes for "Wildfire" and 24% for "Zeal" which came in second place. Wildfire S The HTC Wildfire S is a refresh version released a year later in 2011, which features many enhancements, including a screen with double the resolution of the Wildfire and RAM increased from 384 to 512 MB. Wildfire X HTC Wildfire X, also named "HTC Wildfire Max" and "HTC Wildfire 10", was released on August 22, 2019, and manufactured by HTC Corporation and InOne Corporation. It has a 6.2" 720×1560 display, 3300 mAh non-replaceable battery, dual-SIM, microSD-expandable storage, and 12-Megapixel rear camera video recording with 1080p at 30fps. The variant with 32 GB internal storage has 3 GB of RAM, the variant with 128 GB internal storage has 4 GB RAM. Software updates HTC announced in June 2010 that the HTC Wildfire was on their list of phones to receive the Android 2.2 "Froyo" update. The update to Android 2.2 includes support for USB tethering, enhanced bluetooth support, multiple keyboard languages, Wi-Fi hotspot tethering and more. However, live wallpapers and Adobe Flash Player support in the browser will not be supported. A leaked build of Android 2.2 and 2.2.1 subsequently surfaced from China and Europe respectively, but with limited language support. It was modified and released by developers on the XDA Forums. In addition to this, several unofficial builds based on AOSP 2.2.1 and 2.3 have also surfaced on XDA. On the morning of 20 December 2010, the 2.2 update was released as a modified build of the HTC Glacier's code. Many customers were surprised at the news, some previously so much as speculating that it would not appear, as the majority of Wildfire users had been waiting in anticipation for the update (heightened by limited news on the subject from HTC) since mid-2010. Customers with unlocked HTC Wildfires received the update first, followed by operator-locked users that received the update shortly after the original release. Key software availability See also Comparison of smartphones Galaxy Nexus References External links HTC Wildfire forum Android (operating system) devices HTC smartphones Mobile phones introduced in 2010 Discontinued smartphones Mobile phones with user-replaceable battery sk:High Tech Computer Corporation

27557107

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/May%202010%20Quebec%20wildfires

May 2010 Quebec wildfires

The May 2010 Quebec wildfires were a series of wildfires that affected over from late May to June 2010. Over 120 fires broke out in one week, with most near La Tuque, northeast of Montreal. Smoke from the wildfires caused smog warnings and resulted in heightened air quality indices throughout southern Quebec, including Montreal, Laval, and the Estrie, Montérégie, Lanaudière, Mauricie, and Centre-du-Québec regions; areas such as Ottawa and New England as far southeast as Eastern Massachusetts and Rhode Island also reported poor air quality. The First Nations reserve of Wemotaci, where firefighters were forced to retreat due to the intensity of the fires and density of the resulting smoke, was evacuated, with more than 1,300 residents being temporarily relocated to the neighbouring city of La Tuque. Marcel Trudel, spokesman of Sopfeu—the organization responsible for containing the wildfires—reported that flames as high as had been observed near the reserve. Three other communities—two of them also First Nations reserves—were evacuated as well. More than 1,200 firefighters worked to control the fires, including 200 from other provinces as well as from the U.S. states of Maine, Massachusetts, New Hampshire and Rhode Island. See also List of fires in Canada List of wildfires References External links Société de protection des forêts contre le feu (Association for the prevention of forest fires) Air Quality EventSpace for Quebec Fires—crowdsourced information about the wildfires. 2010 wildfires in Canada 2010 in Quebec May 2010 events in North America June 2010 events in Canada Natural disasters in Quebec

28206247

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2010%20California%20wildfires

2010 California wildfires

The 2010 California wildfires were a series of wildfires that were active in the state of California during the year 2010. During the year, a total of 6,554 wildfires burned of land. Fires Below is a list of all fires that exceeded during the 2010 fire season. The list is taken from CAL FIRE's list of large fires. References California, 2010 Wildfires in California by year

28224526

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2010%20Russian%20wildfires

2010 Russian wildfires

The 2010 Russian wildfires were several hundred wildfires that broke out across Russia, primarily in the west in summer 2010. They started burning in late July and lasted until early September 2010. The fires were associated with record-high temperatures, which were attributed to climate change—the summer had been the hottest recorded in Russian history—and drought. Russian President Dmitry Medvedev declared a state of emergency in seven regions, and 28 other regions were under a state of emergency due to crop failures caused by the drought. The fires cost roughly $15 billion in damages. A combination of the smoke from the fires, producing heavy smog blanketing large urban regions and the record-breaking heat wave put stress on the Russian healthcare system. Munich Re estimated that in all, 56,000 people died from the effects of the smog and the heat wave. The 2010 wildfires were the worst on record to that time. Prelude During 2010 Russia experienced dry, hot weather starting around late May and lasting until early June. Temperatures of first occurred after 12 June, which alone was an abnormality for the country (average mid-June temperatures seldom rise above ). In late June, Russian regions such as the Eurasian Sakha Republic, as well as areas of partial taiga, had temperatures of . The warm ridging pattern then slowly moved westward to the Ural Mountains, and by July settled in European Russia. On 25 June a new temperature record was set in the Asian portion of Russia, at Belogorsk, Amur Oblast, at . The previous record in the Asian portion was at Aksha on 21 July 2004. A new record for the highest nationwide temperature in Russia was set on 11 July, at , in Yashkul, Kalmykia (in the European portion), beating the previous record of set on 6 August 1940, in Kalmykia. Average temperatures in the region increased to over . The mean high for European Russia recorded on 26 July reached during the day. During July 2010, a large portion of European Russia was more than 7 °C (12.6 °F) warmer than normal. According to the director of the Global Fire Monitoring Centre (GFMC) Johann Goldammer, the wildfires were caused by "negligent [human] behaviour", such as lighting barbecues and fireworks in a densely wooded area. Such human activity, coupled with the unusually high temperatures over the Russian territories, catalyzed this record disturbance. Timeline 29 July Peat fires causing significant loss of properties and an unverified number of human fatalities started in the Nizhny Novgorod Oblast, the Voronezh Oblast, Moscow Oblast, Ryazan Oblast and across central and western Russia due to unseasonably hot weather. 31 July The head of EMERCOM, Sergey Shoygu, reported on 31 July 2010 that the fire situation in the seventeen federal subjects of Russia, especially in Vladimir and Moscow Oblasts, may be complicated. He claimed that in Nizhny Novgorod Oblast the velocity of fires was 100 meters per minute, and the fiery air flow tore trees from the root, like a hurricane. A YouTube video was uploaded, showing a group of men escaping from a burning village in Vyksa district by driving their car over a burning road. 1 August On 1 August 2010, the area of the forest fires was . The Central Regional Center MOE Russia website reported that in Moscow Oblast 130 foci of natural fires were detected, covering the area of 880 hectares. Of those, 67 fires covered an area of 178 hectares. 2 August According to "Interfax" referring to the head of the National Center for Crisis Management of EMERCOM Vladimir Stepanov, as of 2010, Russia revealed approximately 7,000 fires in the area over . Fire was also burning in 14 federal subjects of Russia, and on 2010, officials reported the death of 34 people. Moscow on Monday was covered in smoke, with reduced road visibility. On Monday, 2 August 2010, Vladimir Putin scheduled a meeting with the Governors of Voronezh, Novgorod, Samara, Moscow, Ryazan, and Vladimir Oblasts, as well as the Head of the Republic of Mordovia. 4 August By 4 August, the wildfires were still burning over , with a death toll of at least 48. Some fires burned in areas near the nuclear research center in Sarov. However Rosatom head Sergey Kiriyenko dismissed apprehension of an atomic explosion. President Dmitry Medvedev cut short his summer break to return to Moscow for an emergency meeting of the national security council to address the crisis. At an international meeting on 30 July, amid the ongoing heat wave and wildfires, Medvedev announced on television that "practically everything is burning. The weather is anomalously hot. What's happening with the planet's climate right now needs to be a wake-up call to all of us, meaning all heads of state, all heads of social organizations, in order to take a more energetic approach to countering the global changes to the climate." Medvedev sacked some of his senior navy officers after one fire destroyed Russian navy equipment. The officers were accused of "incomplete professional responsibility" after several buildings were allowed to burn down and vehicles and equipment destroyed. He suggested anyone who had neglected their duties would be prosecuted. On the same day it was reported that another fire was approaching a major secret nuclear research facility in the city of Sarov. Environmental groups, such as the WWF, and "non-systemic" opposition politicians suggested firefighting has been slowed down by the Forest Code law passed by the Duma in 2006 at the order of Putin. The legislation transferred responsibility for the country's vast woodlands to regional authorities, putting 70,000 forestry guards out of work. 5 August According to the Emergencies Ministry, there were 843 reported outbreaks of fires, including 47 peat fires. There were 73 large fires. The fires threatened an animal sanctuary for over 1,800 animals, including dogs and retired circus animals. Almost 600 fires were still burning in the country, and around 2,000 homes had been destroyed. The President fired several high-ranking military officials after fires burned through a secret military base. Carbon monoxide pollution in Moscow was four times above normal. Firefighters fought to prevent the wildfires from reaching Bryansk, an area bordering Ukraine contaminated with radioactive material, including cesium-137 and strontium-90, in the soils following the 1986 Chernobyl disaster. Emergencies Minister Sergey Shoygu warned that fires could release radionuclides into the air. He said that a new zone of radioactive pollution could emerge. Two fires broke out in the region but were contained. 6 August According to the Emergencies Ministry, there were registered 831 fires, including 42 peat fires. 80 large fires were registered in an area of . Almost 162,000 people were reported to be fighting with the flames in the regions of Moscow, Voronezh, Nizhny Novgorod, Ryazan, Ivanovo, Vladimir, Yaroslavl, Tver, Yekaterinburg, Republic of Mordovia, and Mari El Republic. According to the State environmental agency "Mosekomonitoring", in the morning in Moscow, the maximum concentration of carbon monoxide in the air exceeded the acceptable norm by 3.6 times, the content of suspended particles by 2.8 times, and specific hydrocarbons by 1.5 times. The Moscow airports of Domodedovo and Vnukovo were unable to land more than 40 planes and were only able to send about 20 planes due to the strong haze caused by the smoke. As of 10 a.m., visibility at Domodedovo was 350 m and 300 m at Vnukovo. According to the Federal Air Transportation Agency, the Sheremetyevo airport works as usual because of visibility of about 800 m. An international football friendly match (Russia–Bulgaria) scheduled for 11 August was moved to Saint Petersburg. Two Russian Premier League football games were postponed because of the severe environmental situation. According to the spectrometric data received from the NASA satellites Terra and Aqua, the smoke from the fires in some places rose to a height of about 12 kilometers and ended up in the stratosphere, which usually only occurs during volcanic eruptions. Satellite imagery showed that a cloud of smoke wide covered Western Russia. 7 August Emergency officials registered 853 outbreaks of fire by 7 August, including 32 peat fires, with a total area of , in which 244 islands of fire were put out, and 290 new fires sprung up. In Moscow, by noon the concentration of airborne pollutants intensified and reached at 6.6 times normal level for carbon monoxide, and 2.2 times for suspended particulate matter. Seven flights heading for Domodedovo and Vnukovo airports were redirected to alternative airfields. The temperature may have reached in Moscow Oblast. At Sheremetyevo International Airport, visibility was reduced to 325 meters. 8 August Smoke from fires in the Novgorod region travel north, arriving in Saint Petersburg. 10 August Early in the afternoon of 10 August Greenpeace Russia stated that fires were raging in radioactive polluted areas near Bryansk, which is quite polluted due to the Chernobyl disaster of 1986. This area is still heavily contaminated and has no inhabitants. In the Moscow area a heavy thunderstorm broke over the city. NO2 rates decreased from 8 times normal to normal NO2 rates. Unfortunately expectations are not favorable with temperatures over 35 degrees Celsius. Experts stated that the polluted air would continue again within a few days. Environmental scientists stated that the brown cloud produced by the fires may cause soot to land on Arctic sea ice, causing faster melting. The release of industrial polychlorinated biphenyls from the fires and cryoconite causing melting on the Greenland Ice Sheet were also concerns. 12 August With the number of fires being reduced from 612 to 562, the skies over Moscow were mostly clear on 12 August, giving the city a much needed break from the devastating smog. Residents in the city told reporters that they were overjoyed with the suddenly improved air; most of whom stopped wearing their masks as the air was safe to breathe. However, forecasts indicated that a shift in the winds was likely to occur in the coming days, likely bringing the smog back into Moscow. Reports indicated that roughly 80,000 hectares of land were still burning. Press reports stated that a preliminary estimate of damage to the Russian economy as a result of the fires was €11.4 billion ($15 billion). 13 August After weeks without rain, heavy downpours soaked Moscow and nearby areas, bringing further relief to the extended heat wave. However, in Sarov, about east of Moscow, a new fire started near the country's top nuclear research center. Earlier in August, radioactive and explosive materials were moved out of the facility due to the threat of fires; however, they were later returned when the threat lessened. Over 3,400 firefighters were battling the blaze and were being assisted by a special firefighting train. 2 September A new wave of wildfires flared up in Russia in September, killing at least 8 people and destroying nearly 900 buildings. Public health effects Deaths in Moscow averaged 700 a day, about twice the usual number. The heat wave is believed to have been unprecedented in Russian history, and killed 55,736 people, according to the Centre for Research on the Epidemiology of Disasters. Fires have affected areas contaminated by the Chernobyl incident, specifically the surroundings of Bryansk and border regions with Belarus and Ukraine. Due to this, soil and plant particles contaminated by radioactive material could be released into the air and spread over wider areas. The Russian government indicated that there had been no discernible increase in radiation, even though Greenpeace accuses the government of denial. France's Institut de radioprotection et de sûreté nucléaire (Radioprotection and Nuclear Safety Institute) issued its own analysis on 12 August, and concluded that there was no health risk at the time, but that marginally elevated levels of radiation may be detected in the future. International assistance and response Russia received assistance in extinguishing the fires from China, Serbia, Italy, Ukraine, Belarus, Armenia, Kazakhstan, Azerbaijan, Bulgaria, Poland, Lithuania, Iran, Estonia, Uzbekistan, Venezuela, France, Germany, Latvia and Finland Many diplomats and a number of embassies temporarily closed, among them those of Austria, Canada, Germany, Poland and Norway. On its website, the United States Department of State advised Americans traveling to Moscow and surrounding areas should "carefully consider" their plans because of "hazardous levels of air pollution" and "numerous flight delays". Italy's Foreign Ministry advised people to "postpone any travel plans to Moscow that aren't strictly necessary". Volunteer efforts Volunteers took part in firefighting and helping those affected by the fires. In some cases, informal help was faster and more effective than official help. Volunteers bought and transported fire suppression materials, chainsaws, engine-driven water pumps, respirators, food, soap, and drinking water. Volunteer coordination happened via LiveJournal communities, the main one being pozar_ru. There is also a website Russian-fires.ru working on Ushahidi platform that was used at Haiti and Chile earthquakes to coordinate volunteers. The Moscow Times wrote on 17 August 2010:Volunteers, widely snubbed by professional firefighters because of their lack of experience, have saved several villages by using basic shovels and buckets of water and sand. Even after a larger fire is suppressed with a fire hose, the underbrush often continues to burn, and a gust of wind can ignite it into a blaze once again. Using shovels and water backpacks, volunteers in Yuvino isolated burning groundcover, cleared a fire line around the village, and loaned firefighters a pump to fill their trucks. Volunteer casualties One volunteer died in action in the Lukhovitsy District on 29 July 2010; the body was found on 15 August 2010. Another volunteer died in Mordovia from carbon monoxide poisoning on 4 August 2010; the body was found by Police patrol days later. Another volunteer died in a car crash in the Shatursky District on 14 August 2010. Censorship Local Russian commercial and governmental mass media did not provide real-time information for the general public. In the case of a fast-moving wildfire there would be no chance to inform people via mass media about emergency evacuation. Furthermore, there was no official of Medvedev's administration personally responsible for providing emergency information of this kind. In a piece under his byline on the Moscow Times website, "Right Cause" party co-founder Georgy Bovt wrote: State-controlled television revealed as little information as possible to the public about the fires and smog. Its primary goal was to prevent panic. This eerily reminded me of how the Soviet government reacted to the Chernobyl explosion in April 1986. In a similar manner, the authorities withheld information about the extent of the nuclear fallout to "avoid panic". In some cases, no information about villages affected by wildfire was available for two weeks. Doctors from several medical institutions in Moscow, interviewed by an Interfax correspondent, acknowledged that medical professionals were now forbidden to make a diagnosis of "thermal shock". According to a Vedomosti poll on information about the fires in the newspapers, 68% of people said that they trusted online media such as blogs, 28% independent media, and only 4% government media. Government Radio Mayak broadcast on 13 August:Vice-minister of Ministry of Emergency Situations Alexander Chupriyan said on Friday (13 August 2010) that the peat fires were extinguished completely in the Noginsk, Kolomna, Pavlovsky Posad and Orekhovo-Zuyevo areas near Moscow. A volunteer wrote about the same events on 13 August 2010 in the Orekhovo-Zuyevo area in his blog:I have never seen such...Along the roads—the burned forest. Here and there still smoldering, smoking. The road blocks smoke. What you saw in Moscow — it is nothing you have seen. Independent radio РСН on 14 August: The MOE said that nothing is burning...TV show that nothing is burning...Civilians forced to buy fire equipment for firemen ... I saw open fire at Orekhovo-Zuyevo area. Another volunteer wrote about the events on 15 August 2010 in the same Orekhovo-Zuyevo area in his blog:The situation in Orekhovo is stable, i.e. a stable grassroots fire. Russian policies The swamps and bogs surrounding Moscow had been drained in the 1960s for agricultural use and mining of peat to generate energy. In 2002, a series of hard-to-extinguish peat fires led the government to recognize that the peat fields needed to be re-watered to prevent wildfires. By 2010, however, large expanses of peat areas had not been rewatered and were kindling wildfires. Government officials said they could not have anticipated the heatwave, but critics blamed complacent officials for ignoring warnings of blazes near villages. Sergey Robaten, Vadim Tatur, and Maksim Kalashnikov argued that the fires and the inability to contain and extinguish them was due to "the inaction of bureaucrats" and Putin's changing of how the Russian State Fire Service functions in 2001. Putin had transferred responsibility for fighting fires to those renting state property and the subjects of the federation, with the assumption that owners or renters would invest in whatever was necessary to prevent forest fires. However, the reality was more complex; Russian companies were seeking to turn a quick profit and thus neglected forest firefighting. Putin's spokesman remarked, "this is a well-functioning system which only needs some minor adjustments". See also Similar disasters List of wildfires 2012 Krasnodar Krai floods 2010 Bolivia forest fires 2010 China drought and dust storms 2010 Pakistan floods 2010 China floods 2003 European heat wave 1997 Southeast Asian haze Weather and climate Climate of Russia Weather of 2010 Siberian High References External links The Russian Heat Wave of 2010, NOAA Natural Variability Main Culprit of Deadly Russian Heat Wave That Killed Thousands, NOAA – 9 March 2011 Heatwave in Russia – Earth Observatory (NASA) Carbon Monoxide over Western Russia – Earth Observatory (NASA) Fires in Eastern Siberia – Earth Observatory (NASA) Smoke over Western Russia – Earth Observatory (NASA) Smoke over Moscow – Earth Observatory (NASA) Fires and Smoke in Russia – Earth Observatory (NASA) Moscow: Covered in Smoke – slideshow by Life magazine Force Majeure: Wildfires in Russia by Emile Hirsch Russian Wildfires Wildfires Russian Wildfires 2010 Russian wildfires Smog events Health disasters in Russia July 2010 events in Asia August 2010 events in Asia September 2010 events in Asia July 2010 events in Europe August 2010 events in Europe September 2010 events in Europe July 2010 events in Russia August 2010 events in Russia September 2010 events in Russia

30907060

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wildfire%20at%20Midnight

Wildfire at Midnight

Wildfire at Midnight is a novel by Mary Stewart which was first published in 1956. Stewart herself described the book as "an attempt at something different, the classic closed-room detective story with restricted action, a biggish cast, and a closely circular plot". Synopsis Fashion model Gianetta Brooke leaves her usual glamorous surroundings to go on holiday to the Scottish island of Skye, only to find that her ex-husband, writer Nicholas Drury, is staying at the same hotel in Camasunary. Set against the backdrop of recent events at the time of publication—the coronation of Queen Elizabeth II and the Hillary expedition that was the first to reach the summit of Mount Everest—this romantic suspense novel now has a "bygone era" sense of time and place. After two murders take place locally, suspicion falls on the hotel guests, who include an aging "femme-fatale" star stage actress, a mountaineer, a possessive climber and her ingenue apprentice, a jealous wife and philandering husband, an old acquaintance of Gianetta's and Nicholas's, a writer of travel guides, and a handsome local versed in pagan folklore. Gianetta, above suspicion due to her more recent arrival at the hotel, finds herself divided when assisting the police, torn between old loyalties, new sympathies, and her civic duty. Background and analysis The mystery component blends 1953 news events with mountaineering, druid mythology and pagan ritual, along with conflicting views about the conquering of nature: heroic progress or human arrogance? Stewart was familiar with the Isle of Skye, which she had visited with her husband on tours of Scotland. References 1956 British novels Novels by Mary Stewart Novels set in Highland (council area) Novels set in hotels Isle of Skye Novels set on islands Hodder & Stoughton books