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5722819

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wildfire%20suppression

Wildfire suppression

Wildfire suppression is a range of firefighting tactics used to suppress wildfires. Firefighting efforts in wild land areas require different techniques, equipment, and training from the more familiar structure fire fighting found in populated areas. Working in conjunction with specially designed aerial firefighting aircraft, these wildfire-trained crews suppress flames, construct fire lines, and extinguish flames and areas of heat to protect resources and natural wilderness. Wildfire suppression also addresses the issues of the wildland–urban interface, where populated areas border with wild land areas. In the United States and other countries, aggressive wildfire suppression aimed at minimizing fire has contributed to accumulation of fuel loads, increasing the risk of large, catastrophic fires. History Australia Wildland fire, known in Australia as bush fire, has played a major role in Australia due to arid conditions. Notable fire services tasked with wildfire suppression include NPWS (National Parks and Wildlife Service, NSW), the New South Wales Rural Fire Service, the South Australian Country Fire Service, the Western Australian Parks and Wildlife Service, the Victorian Department of Environment, Land, Water and Planning (DELWP), and the Country Fire Authority. Canada Canada contains approximately of forest land. Seventy-five percent of this is boreal forest, made up primarily of coniferous trees. More than 90 percent of Canadian forest land is publicly owned, and the provincial and territorial governments are responsible for fire-suppression activities. The Federal Canadian Interagency Forest Fire Centre (CIFFC) provides operational fire-control services and links to all provincial and territorial fire agencies. During a typical year there are over 9,000 forest fires in Canada, burning an average of 2.5 million hectares (ha) or . The number of fires and area burned can vary dramatically from year to year. Average suppression costs are $500 million to $1 billion annually. In Canada, two-thirds of all forest fires are caused by people, while lightning causes the remaining third. Despite this, lightning fires account for over 85 percent of the area burned in Canada, largely because many of the lightning-caused fires occur in remote, inaccessible areas. Currently about ninety percent of forest fires are fought. Generally fires near communities, industrial infrastructure, and forests with high commercial and recreation value are given high priority for suppression efforts. In remote areas and wilderness parks, fires may be left to burn as part of the natural ecological cycle. United States Indigenous communities embraced fire as an ally in preserving nature, but once populations began to grow across the U.S., wildfires started to trigger unprecedented destruction of property and sometimes resulted in massive death tolls. Greater impact on people's lives led to government intervention and changes to how wildfires were addressed. One of the first turning points for firefighting philosophies in the U.S. happened in October 1871, the year of the Great Chicago Fire. Six years removed from the Civil War, the Fire destroyed more than 17,000 buildings across the Windy City, upended thousands of lives and devastated their thriving business community, which did not fully recover until the World's Fair came to Chicago in 1893. The Great Chicago Fire left an indelible mark on the city, and much of its lasting impact came from the introduction of more sensible building codes. The same day as the Chicago Fire, a much larger, more deadly, but less-discussed fire occurred, which had a more significant influence on the federal government and its role in fire management. The Peshtigo Fire broke out on the morning of October 8, 1871. It burned for three days, and while estimates vary, the consensus is that it killed more than 1,200 people – making it the deadliest wildfire in American history to this day. In addition to the number of people killed, the fire burned more than 1.2 million acres of land and spread to nearby towns, where it caused even more damage. The entire town of Peshtigo was destroyed within an hour of the start of the fire. News of the historical destruction spread slowly. People soon learned of the Peshtigo Fire in addition to the Great Chicago Fire, as well as another fire in Michigan which occurred at the same time that had burned more than two million acres. As a result of the 1871 fire breakouts, the federal government saw that it needed to act. This led in 1876 to the creation of the Office of Special Agent in the U.S. Department of Agriculture to assess the quality and conditions of forests in the United States. As the forerunner of the U.S. Forest Service, this was the first time that wildfire management was placed under government purview. Objectives and risks Safety Protection of human life is first priority for firefighters. Since 1995, when arriving on a scene, a fire crew will establish safety zones and escape routes, verify communication is in place, and designate lookouts (known in the U.S. by the acronym LCES, for lookouts, communications, escape routes, safety zones). This allows the firefighters to engage a fire with options for a retreat should their current situation become unsafe. Although other safety zones should be designated, areas already burned generally provide a safe refuge from fire provided they have cooled sufficiently, are accessible, and have burned enough fuels so as to not reignite. Briefings may be done to inform new fire resources of hazards and other pertinent information. A great emphasis is placed on safety and preventing entrapment, a situation where escape from the fire is impossible. Prevention of this situation is reinforced with two training protocols, Ten Standard Firefighting Orders and Eighteen Situations That Shout Watch Out, which warn firefighters of potentially dangerous situations, developed in the aftermath of the Mann Gulch fire. As a last resort, many wildland firefighters carry a fire shelter. In this inescapable situation, the shelter will provide limited protection from radiant and convective heat, as well as superheated air. Entrapment within a fire shelter is called a burnover. In Australia, firefighters rarely carry fireshelters (commonly referred to as "Shake 'N' Bake" shelters); rather, training is given to locate natural shelters or use hand tools to create protection; or, in the instance of 'burnover' in a tanker or other fire appliance, 'fire overrun' training is used. Hazards beyond the fire are posed as well. A very small sample of these include: unstable/hazardous trees, animals, electrical cables, unexploded ordnance, hazardous materials, rolling and falling debris, and lightning. Personal safety is also vital to wildland firefighting. The proper use of PPE (personal protective equipment) and firefighting equipment will help minimise accidents. At the very minimum, wildland firefighters should have proper fire-retardant clothing (such as Nomex), protective headgear, wildland firefighting-specific boots, gloves, water for hydration, fire shelters, eye protection, and some form of communication (most commonly a radio). Resource protection Other resources are ranked according to importance and/or value. These include but are not limited to human health and safety, construction cost, ecological impacts, social and legal consequences and the costs of protection. Defendability is also considered, as more effort will need to be expended on saving a house with a wooden-shake roof than one with a tile roof, for example. Ecosystem changes While wildfire suppression serves human safety and resource protection, the lack of natural fires can be the cause of ecosystem changes, as can the size of fires when they do occur. Fire ecology is accordingly not as simple as many might assume. Across the global grassland and savanna ecosystems, fire suppression is frequently found to be a driver of woody encroachment. Organization Across the United States, wildfire suppression is administered by land management agencies including the U.S. Forest Service, Bureau of Land Management, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, National Park Service, the Bureau of Reclamation, the Army Corps of Engineers, and state departments of forestry. All of these groups contribute to the National Wildfire Coordinating Group and the National Interagency Fire Center. The National Interagency Fire Center hosts the National Interagency Coordination Center (NICC). NICC's primary responsibility is positioning and managing national resources (i.e. Hotshot Crews, smokejumpers, air tankers, incident management teams, National Caterers, mobile shower units, and command repeaters). NICC also serves as clearing house for the dispatch ordering system. Reporting to NICC are 10 Geographic Area Coordination Centers (Alaska, Great Basin, Northern Rockies, Rocky Mountains, Southern California, Northern California, Eastern, Southern, Southwest and Northwest). Under each GACC are several dispatch zones. Management Managing any number of resources over varying-size areas in often very rugged terrain is extremely challenging. An incident commander (IC) is charged with overall command of an incident. In the U.S., the Incident Command System designates this as being the first on scene providing they have sufficient training. The size of the fire, measured in acres or chains, as well as the complexity of the incident and threats to developed areas, will later dictate the class-level of IC required. Incident management teams aid on larger fire incidents to meet more complex priorities and objectives of the incident commander. It provides support staff to handle duties such as communication, fire behavior modeling, and map- and photo-interpretation. Again in the U.S., management coordination between fires is primarily done by the National Interagency Fire Center (NIFC). Specific agencies and different incident management teams may include a number of different individuals with various responsibilities and varying titles. A fire information officer (PIOF) generally provides fire-related information to the public, for example. Branch chiefs and division chiefs serve as management on branches and divisions, respectively, as the need for these divisions arise. Investigators may be called to ascertain the fire's cause. Prevention officers such as forest rangers may patrol their jurisdictional areas to teach fire prevention and prevent some human-caused fires from happening to begin with. Communication Information may be communicated on fires in many forms. Radios, vocals, visual signals such as flagging and mirrors, literature such as an IAP or incident action plan, whistles and mobile touch-screen computer terminals are some examples. The USFS Visual Signal Code system provides symbols used to communicate from ground to air, while aircraft may use wing tilting, motor gunning or circling to communicate air-to-ground. Radio communication is very typical for communication during a wildfire. This is due to the wide coverage provided and the ability to communicate in a one-to-many format. One of the most popular radio manufacturers for this application is Relm Wireless (also known as Bendix King and BK Radio). The company is based in Florida, U.S., and holds many contracts with various government entities. The other up-and-coming company entering this niche market is Midland Radio. Its U.S. headquarters is in the midwest (Kansas City, Missouri), and it manufacturers many radio models, including mobiles and portables. Tactics Operating in the U.S. within the context of fire use, firefighters may only suppress fire that has become uncontrollable. Conversely, fires or portions of a fire that have previously been engaged by firefighters may be treated as fire use situation and be left to burn. All fire suppression activities are based from an anchor point (such as lake, rock slide, road or other natural or artificial fire break). From an anchor point firefighters can work to contain a wild land fire without the fire outflanking them. Large fires often become extended campaigns. Incident command posts (ICPs) and other temporary fire camps are constructed to provide food, showers, and rest to fire crews. Weather conditions and fuel conditions are large factors in the decisions made on a fire. Within the U.S., the Energy Release Component (ERC) is a scale relating fuel energy potential to area. The Burning Index (BI) relates flame length to fire spread speed and temperature. The Haines Index (HI) tracks stability and humidity of air over a fire. The Keetch–Byram dought index relates fuels to how quickly they could ignite and to what percentage they should burn. The Lightning Activity Level (LAL) ranks lightning potential into six classes. Fuel models are specific fuel designations determined by energy burning potential. Placed into 13 classes, they range from "short grass" (model 1) to "logging slash" (model 13). Low-numbered models burn at lower intensities than those at the higher end. Direct attack Direct attack is any treatment applied directly to burning fuel such as wetting, smothering, or chemically quenching the fire, or by physically separating the burning from not burned fuel. This includes the work of urban and wildland fire engines, fire personnel and aircraft applying water or fire retardant directly to the burning fuel. For most agencies, the objective is to make a fireline around all fire meant to be suppressed. Indirect attack Preparatory suppression tactics used a distance away from the oncoming fire are considered indirect. Firelines may be built in this manner as well. Fuel reduction, indirect firelines, contingency firelines, backburning and wetting unburnt fuels are examples. This method may allow for more effective planning. It may allow for more ideally placed firelines in lighter fuels using natural barriers to fire and for safer firefighter working conditions in less smoke filled and cooler areas. However, it may also allow for more burned acreage, larger hotter fires, and the possibility of wasted time constructing unused firelines. Attempts to control wildfires may also include by controlling the area that it can spread to by creating control lines: boundaries that contain no combustible material. These may be constructed by physically removing combustible material with tools and equipment, or portions may be naturally occurring. Lines may also be created by backfiring: creating small, low-intensity fires using driptorches or flares. The resultant fires are extinguished by firefighters or, ideally, directed in such a way that they meet the main fire front, at which point both fires run out of flammable material and are thus extinguished. Additionally, the use of long-term fire retardants, fire-fighting foams, and superabsorbent polymer gels may be used. Such compounds reduce the flammability of materials by either blocking the fire physically or by initiating a chemical reaction that stops the fire. However, any method can fail in the face of erratic or high-intensity winds and changing weather. Changing winds may cause fires to change direction and miss control lines. High-intensity winds may cause jumping or spotting as burning embers are carried through the air over a fireline. Burning trees may fall and burning materials may roll across the line, effectively negating the barrier. Mop-up The threat of wildfires does not cease after the flames have passed, as smoldering heavy fuels may continue to burn unnoticed for days after flaming. It is during this phase that either the burn area exterior or the complete burn area of a fire is cooled so as to not reignite another fire. Rehabilitation Constructed firelines, breaks, safety zones and other items may damage soil systems, encouraging erosion from surface run-off and gully formation. The loss of plant life from the fire also contributes to erosion. Construction of waterbars, the addition of plants and debris to exposed soils and other measures help to reduce this. Fires at the wildland–urban interface Wildfires can pose risks to human settlement in three main scenarios. The first can happen at the classic wildland–urban interface, where urban or suburban development borders wild land. The second happens at the mixed wildland–urban interface, where homes or small communities are interspersed throughout a wild area, and the boundary between developed and non-developed land is undefined. The third occurs in the occluded wildland–urban interface, where pockets of wild land are enclosed within cities. Expansive urbanization and other human activity in areas adjacent to wildlands is a primary reason for the catastrophic structural losses experienced in wildfires. Continued development of wildland–urban interface firefighting measures and the rebuilding of structures destroyed by fires has been met with criticism. Communities such as Sydney and Melbourne in Australia have been built within highly flammable forest fuels. The city of Cape Town, South Africa, lies on the fringe of the Table Mountain National Park. In the western United States from the 1990s to 2007, over 8.5 million new homes were constructed on the wildland–urban interface. Fuel buildup can result in costly, devastating fires as more new houses and ranches are built adjacent to wilderness areas. However, the population growth in these fringe areas discourages the use of current fuel management techniques. Smoke from fires is an irritant and a pollutant. Attempts to thin out the fuel load may be met with opposition due to the desirability of forested areas. Wildland goals may be further resisted because of endangered species protections and habitat preservation. The ecological benefit of fire is often overridden by the economic benefits of protecting structures and lives. Additionally, federal policies that cover wildland areas usually differ from local and state policies that govern urban lands. In North America, the belief that fire suppression has substantially reduced the average annual area burned is widely held by resource managers, and is often thought to be self-evident. However, this belief has been the focus of vocal debate in the scientific literature. Equipment and personnel Wildfire suppression requires specialist personnel and equipment. Notable examples include smokejumpers (firefighters who parachute into remote areas) and helicopter support. Efficacy The success of wildfire suppression techniques is debated amongst the scientific community. A number of studies (produced during the 1990s) using Ontario government fire records compared either the number of fires or the average fire size between areas with and without aggressive fire suppression policies. They found that the average fire size was generally smaller in areas of aggressive policy. One report, written in 1998 by Stocks and Weber, said; "Use of fire as a management tool recognizes the natural role of fire and is applied judiciously for ecosystem maintenance and restoration in selected areas." A later 2005 study concluded that "Fire suppression is (functionally) effective insofar as it reduces area burned". Other studies have concluded that the 20th century change in the fire cycle is a result of climate change. A 1993 study by Bergeron & Archambault said: "post-'Little Ice Age' climate change has profoundly decreased the frequency of fires in the northwestern Québec boreal forest". Critics have also pointed out that small fires are virtually unreported in areas without aggressive fire suppression policies, where detection often relies on reports from settlements or commercial aircraft, leading to incorrect average fire size data for those regions. See also References Further reading Besenyo, Janos: Forest Fires as the New Form of Terrorism, Terrorism and Political Violence, pages 1–13, Published online: 11 Jul 2017 Casals P, Valor T, Besalú A, Molina-Terrén D. Understory fuel load and structure eight to nine years after prescribed burning in Mediterranean pine forests. DOI: 10.1016/j.foreco.2015.11.050 Valor T, González-Olabarria JR, Piqué M. Assessing the impact of prescribed burning on the growth of European pines. DOI: 10.1016/j.foreco.2015.02.002. External links The International Association of Wildland Fire Canadian Wildland Fire Information System The Canadian Interagency Forest Fire Centre (CIFFC) British Columbia Ministry of Forests Protection Branch United States National Interagency Fire Center Wildfire History and Ecology National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health - Fighting Wildfires Proposed Wildfire Suppression Technology Fire suppression Forestry occupations Occupational safety and health Wildfire ecology

5833062

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National%20Wildfire%20Coordinating%20Group

National Wildfire Coordinating Group

The National Wildfire Coordinating Group (NWCG) was formed in the United States as a result of the aftermath of a major wildfire season in 1970, including the Laguna Fire. The 1970 fire season underscored the need for a national set of training and equipment standards which would be standardized across the different agencies. NWCG included representatives from the United States Forest Service, the Bureau of Land Management, the National Park Service, the Bureau of Indian Affairs, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, and the National Association of State Foresters. After a series of meetings in the early 1970s, the NWCG was officially chartered by the Secretaries of the Interior and Agriculture in 1976. Among the notable results of the NWCG has been the adoption of the Interagency Fire Qualifications Rating system, more commonly known among firefighters as the "red card" qualification system; the establishment of the series of training classes associated with the red card system (such as the basic wildland fire course, S-130/S-190); the establishment of an interagency fire training center at Marana, Arizona; the publication of training manuals such as the Fireline Handbook; and the Resource Ordering Status System. NWCG was formed independently of two other programs which also formed in the 1970s out of the need for greater interagency coordination: the Boise Interagency Fire Center (now the National Interagency Fire Center), and the FIRESCOPE program in southern California. SmoC The NWCG oversees the Smoke Committee (SmoC), an advisory group that addresses strategies and guidance for addressing smoke within fire and fuels programs nationwide. The Committee's web page describes itself as a forum where air resource and wildland fire management programs and member agencies will discuss and attempt to resolve technical, regulatory and policy matters of joint interest concerning fire emissions and air quality impacts on firefighter and public safety and health from planned and unplanned fires. National Incident Management Organization In 2003, an Interagency Team identified strategies to improve incident management. The NWCG accepted the conclusions of the study in 2005 and the National Incident Management Organization (NIMO) was formed. The NIMO is a seven-member team of professional incident managers with complex incident management as their primary focus. In addition to incident management NIMO provides training, leadership development and other support activities. See also Pyne, Stephen J., Fire In America, 1982 University of Washington Press. National Incident Management System (NIMS) Incident Command System (ICS) Wildfire References External links Wildfire suppression agencies United States Forest Service United States Department of the Interior Firefighting in the United States 1976 establishments in the United States Organizations established in 1976

7264556

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wildfire%20%28Carol%20Vance%20Martin%29

Wildfire (Carol Vance Martin)

Wildfire (Carol Vance Martin) is a fictional superhero in the DC Comics universe. One of the first female superheroes, she was originally published by Quality Comics during what comics historians and fans called the Golden Age of comic books. With her luxurious mane of red hair and revealing costume, she has been called "the sexiest super-hero of 1941". According to Jess Nevins' Encyclopedia of Golden Age Superheroes, "her opponents are mostly ordinary criminals and Axis agents, although there are a few name villains, like the Frog, Mad Merlin, and the Dean of Darkness". Publication history Wildfire appears in Smash Comics #25-37, in solo adventures drawn by Jim Mooney. She, along with many other Quality Comics superheroes, was purchased by DC Comics after Quality went out of business in the mid-1950s. Wildfire was a redhead, who wore red pants. Her powers were gifted to her by the god of fire. Speculation that Wildfire was originally intended to play a major role in the All-Star Squadron series, but DC objected on the basis of her name, which she shared with the Legion of Super-Heroes member is inaccurate - Roy Thomas confirmed in Tomorrows' Quality Companion that he, not DC, took the decision not to use the character. A female incarnation of Firebrand was introduced into the series with similar abilities. Fictional character biography Her only appearance in a DC comic is in The Golden Age miniseries, by writer James Robinson and artist Paul Smith. In issue #4, the male cross-dressing character Madame Fatal appears in a panel surrounded by the Fiddler, and the Gambler, who all appear to be courting "her" while other heroes (including Wildfire) stand around giggling, evidently aware of Madame Fatal's true gender. She also inspired another character named Wildfire in the JLA: Destiny miniseries. References External links The Unofficial Wildfire Biography Wildfire Profile Wildfire (1941) at Don Markstein's Toonopedia. Archived from the original on September 15, 2015. Comics characters introduced in 1941 DC Comics female superheroes Golden Age superheroes Quality Comics superheroes Characters created by Jim Mooney Superheroes who are adopted

7704284

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wildfire%20%28Silver%20Dollar%20City%29

Wildfire (Silver Dollar City)

Wildfire is a steel roller coaster located at Silver Dollar City in Branson, Missouri. Manufactured by Bolliger & Mabillard, the $14-million ride opened to the public on April 4, 2001. It is themed as a flying machine developed by a fictional 1880s Ozark inventor. Wildfire stands tall with a drop of and features a maximum speed of . Along its of track, riders experience five inversions including an Immelmann loop, a vertical loop, a cobra roll, and a corkscrew. History In 2000, Silver Dollar City announced that they would be adding the Wildfire roller coaster to their park in April 2001. At a cost of $14 million, the ride would be the most expensive attraction in the park's history. By the time the ride was announced, construction was already underway in an undeveloped portion of land in the outskirts of the park. All of the ride's footings were in place with some of its steel supports already erected. Construction was expected to be completed in early January the following year, leaving three months for testing, landscaping, and theming. On April 4, 2001, Wildfire officially opened to the public. Characteristics The Wildfire features five inversions including an Immelmann loop, a vertical loop, a cobra roll and a corkscrew. The park's existing terrain (situated on the Ozark Mountains) is utilised to allow a lift hill to be followed by a first drop of . Riders reach a top speed of on the 2-minute, 14-second ride. The track was manufactured by Clermont Steel Fabricators located in Batavia, Ohio. Wildfire operates with two trains (generally with one train loading/unloading while the other runs the course, each featuring eight cars. Each car seats riders four abreast with ratcheting over-the-shoulder restraints. This configuration allows the ride to achieve a theoretical hourly capacity of 1,024 riders per hour when operating with two trains and 512 riders per hour with one train. Wildfire is located in the Hugo's Hill Street district of Silver Dollar City. It is themed around the story of an 1880s Ozark inventor named Dr. Horatio Harris. Harris had an aim to create a powered flying contraption for flight across the Ozark Mountains. The ride's name refers to the fuel he developed for his flying machine. The ride's queue and station area are modelled as the laboratory and invention warehouse of Harris. Riders eventually board his Wildfire-powered flying machine, the steel roller coaster. One year after the opening of the roller coaster Silver Dollar City began selling the Wildfire Burger, a hot and spicy hamburger themed after the ride. Ride experience After leaving the station, the train makes a 180-degree right turn and climbs up a chain lift hill. The train turns 90 degrees to the left after reaching the top, then descends down the first drop. This is followed by an Immelmann loop, a vertical loop, and a cobra roll – the latter of which inverts riders twice. Then the train heads up a banked curve into a corkscrew and a 230-degree turn into the final brake run. Reception Rick Baker, Silver Dollar City's vice president of corporate development and design, expected the addition of the ride would increase season pass sales by 9% to 250,000. In 2001, the park was visited by a total of 2.1 million people. In Amusement Today's annual Golden Ticket Awards, Wildfire ranked in the top 50 steel roller coasters three times. In 2003 it debuted at position 40, before dropping to 46 in 2004 and 49 in 2005. it has not returned to the listing. Notes References External links Roller coasters in Missouri Roller coasters introduced in 2001 Buildings and structures in Taney County, Missouri Silver Dollar City Roller coasters operated by Herschend Family Entertainment

8810003

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volunteer%20Wildfire%20Services

Volunteer Wildfire Services

The Volunteer Wildfire Services is a group of volunteers in Cape Town, South Africa who assist local fire fighting agencies to suppress wildfires. Affiliated to the Table Mountain National Park, the VWS is the only unit of its kind in South Africa. The VWS has three main functions: assist landowners with wildland fire suppression provide education and awareness programmes for school children, and provide training for private landowners in wildfire prevention and management techniques Funding is secured through various projects that allow the Unit to operate independently and manage their own funds and resources. The VWS forms partnerships with companies in order to survive financially. Fire fighters are on standby for 24 hours a day, for 365 days of the year. As with any volunteer organization, members are able to assist with wildfire suppression at various levels. While some are only available on weekends or after hours, others can assist at any time of the day or night. There are various sections within the Unit, including Active Fire Fighters, Logistical Support (Drivers, Caterers, Medics, Technical Support teams), Planners, Admin, and other important groups who ensure that the organization runs smoothly throughout the year. The VWS has provided thousands of hours of fire duty to the TMNP and other landowners at no charge, and will continue to do so as a sign of their commitment to assisting the citizens of Cape Town with the saving of lives and property, and the conservation of the Fynbos. A new branch of the VWS was inaugurated in Jonkershoek, Stellenbosch in 2009. It provides volunteer firefighting services to CapeNature in the Jonkershoek, Kogelberg, Hottentots Holland and Limietberg nature reserves, an area of some 290 000 ha of montane fynbos. Since 2009 two more stations have been added to the group, South Peninsula (2012) and Grabouw (2015). There are currently a around 220 active volunteers within this highly organised non-profit organisation. References Volunteer Wildfire Services Emergency service organizations who received certificates for outstanding volunteer service Reeds support Wildfire organisation in Cape Town - Reeds, 2006-08-21 Wildfires in South Africa Fire protection organizations Wildfire suppression agencies Environmental organisations based in South Africa

9425557

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HMS%20Wildfire%20%282000%20shore%20establishment%29

HMS Wildfire (2000 shore establishment)

HMS Wildfire is a Royal Naval Reserve unit in Northwood, North West London. Training over 100 reservists, HMS Wildfire is located within a purpose built training facility inside the national military tri-service HQ and NATO base. History Descended from a long a line of HMS Wildfires since the 1760s, the current unit was commissioned as HMS Northwood in 1957 to support the growing NATO Eastern Atlantic Command at Northwood. Housed initially within Northwood Headquarters, the unit occupied a series of huts until in 1988 the unit moved to Brackenhill House, an Edwardian mansion situated from the main gate of Northwood Headquarters/HMS Warrior. In May 2000 HMS Northwood decommissioned and was commissioned as HMS Wildfire. As part of the redevelopment of the base HMS Wildfire returned to the main base into a modern purpose built facility. On 11 June 2011, the Ships company formally marched from Brackenhill House to the Northwood base behind the RM Band Portsmouth and was inspected by Commander-in-Chief Fleet, Admiral Sir Trevor Soar. Commanding Officer The current Commanding Officer of HMS Wildfire is Lieutenant Commander Ian Dorward. References Royal Navy shore establishments

11770764

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spreadin%27%20Like%20Wildfire

Spreadin' Like Wildfire

Spreadin’ Like Wildfire (see 1981 in music) was The Archers' only album released on MCA. At the Grammy Awards of 1981, Spreadin' Like Wildfire was nominated for the Grammy Award for Best Gospel Performance, Contemporary. The Archers performed George Ratzlaff's "Everyday I've Got To Sing Some" on the Grammy Awards. Title list "Spreadin' Like Wildfire" (Hal and Rachel Newman) 4:01 "I Never Knew Love" (Reba Rambo - Dony McGuire) 4:02 "Sooner of Later" (Steve Archer - Reba Rambo) 4:22 "Back in Your Arms" (Tim Archer) 4:45 "Everyday I've Got To Sing Some" (George Ratzlaff) 4:11 "Runnin' Too Long" (Tim Archer - Reba Rambo) 4:13 "Care" (Steve Archer - Dan Cutrona) 4:33 "Nothing Can Separate Us" (Reba Rambo - Dony McGuire) 4:15 "Merry-Go-Round" (Steve Archer) 5:19 "Never Say Goodbye" (Bruce Hibbard) 3:53 Personnel Larrie Londin and Alex Acuña - drums and percussion Abraham Laboriel – bass Shane Keister and Dony McGuire – synthesizers Hadley Hockensmith - electric guitars Bill Kenner – mandolin Tony Sena - electric overdubs on "Merry-Go-Round" and "Never Say Goodbye." Strings by the Shelly Kurland Strings: Sheldon Kurland, George Binkley, John David Boyle, Marvin D. Chantry, Roy Christensen, Conni L. Ellisor, Carl J. Gorodetzky, Lennie Haight, Dennis W. Molchan, James R. Skipper, Samuel Terranova, Gary Vanasdale Horns: Dennis Solee (sax solos), Buddy Skipper, George Tidwell, Roger Bissell. Piano and Rhodes - Dan Cutrona Production Produced by Dony McGuire Track and vocal arrangements by Dony McGuire Strings and horns arranged by Buddy Skipper Recording and mixing engineers - Warren Peterson and George Michael Psanos Recorded at MCA Whitney Studios, Glendale, California Vocal overdubs recorded by Willie Harlan at IAM, Irvine, California Remixed at Sound Stage Studios, Nashville, Tennessee Mastered by Steve Hall at MCA Whitney Mastering Studios, Glendale, California Photography by Bob Duffy Art direction by George Osaki Design by Randy Moses References Archers: Cutting Edge Music Discography The Archers.US Archers.org External links http://www.thebeginningsconcert.com The Beginnings Concert The Archers (musical group) albums 1981 albums

13861074

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2007%20California%20wildfires

2007 California wildfires

The 2007 California wildfire season saw at least 9,093 separate wildfires that charred of land. Thirty of those wildfires were part of the Fall 2007 California firestorm, which burned approximately 972,147 acres (about 3,934 km2, or 1,520 mi2) of land from Santa Barbara County to the U.S.–Mexico border. At the peak of the wildfire activity in October 2007, the raging wildfires were visible from space. The wildfires killed a total of 17 people, with nine of them dying directly from the fires; 203 others were injured, including at least 124 firefighters. California Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger declared a state of emergency in seven California counties where fires were burning. President George W. Bush concurred, and ordered federal aid to supplement state and local response efforts. Over 6,000 firefighters worked to fight the blazes; they were aided by units of the United States Armed Forces, United States National Guard, almost 3,000 prisoners convicted of non-violent crimes, and 60 firefighters from the Mexican cities of Tijuana and Tecate. The fires forced approximately 1,000,000 people to evacuate from their homes, becoming the largest evacuation in California's history. Major contributing factors to the extreme fire conditions were drought in Southern California, hot weather, and the unusually strong Santa Ana winds, with gusts reaching 112 mph (180 km/h). California's "fire season," which traditionally runs from June to October, has become a year-round threat, due to a mixture of perennial drought and the increasing number of homes built in canyons and on hillsides, surrounded by brush and forest. The fires had numerous sources. Several were triggered by power lines damaged by the high winds. One fire started when a semi-truck overturned. Another was suspected as having been deliberately caused; the suspect was shot and killed in flight by state authorities. A 10-year-old boy admitted that he accidentally started the Buckweed Fire by playing with matches. Causes of the remaining fires remain under investigation. The last active fire of the October 2007 fires, the Harris Fire, was fully extinguished on November 16, 2007, about 27 days after the series of wildfires had begun to ignite. The October 2007 wildfires collectively caused over $2 billion in property damages. During the season, the National Interagency Fire Center reported that two firefighters were killed. One died in a helicopter crash, and the second was killed in a bulldozer rollover. Fires Below is a list of all fires that exceeded during the 2007 fire season. The list is taken from CAL FIRE's list of large fires. Notes October 2007 wildfires Wind and weather The October 2007 fires occurred following an extremely dry previous winter: in Los Angeles, with only of rainfall between July 2006 and June 2007, it was the driest “rain year” on record by . The record drought was exacerbated by the seasonal Santa Ana winds, blowing at an abnormally high strength. This combination of wind, heat, and dryness turned the chaparral into fire fuel. Officials believed that some of the fires generated their own winds, similar to the Oakland firestorm of 1991. The effects of the smoke were felt as far away as Brentwood in the East Bay, near Stockton, where it impacted local weather. High-speed Santa Ana winds also rendered the use of dropping water from fire fighting aircraft inefficient: until such winds abate, most payloads of water are just dispersed by the wind over an area so large that the water evaporates before it can reach a large fire on the ground. The San Diego Union-Tribune reported, At one point, swirling winds threatened to bring fire into densely populated urban areas. At the height of the Santa Ana winds on October 22, sustained wind speeds reached , with wind gusts up to reported. Impact On October 21, the Harris Fire damaged and disabled the Southwest Power Link, a 500,000-volt power line from Arizona to San Diego. Power outages were reported in Los Angeles, Orange, San Diego, and other counties on October 22 to 333,500 Southern California Edison customers, most being restored within 24 hours. The power outage also affected the areas of Ojai, Oxnard, Simi Valley, Santa Clarita, Thousand Oaks, Agoura Hills, Rialto, Fontana, San Bernardino, Rancho Cucamonga, Mira Loma, Hesperia, Corona, Bloomington, Irvine, Calimesa and Rubidoux. This outage also caused 230 people to be without power in Malibu. The California Independent System Operator Corp declared an energy transmission emergency in southern California on October 23, due to wildfires affecting the lines. 500,000-, 230,000- and 138,000-volt lines were disabled in San Diego, and some lines in other areas were also disabled. 24,992 people lost power, due to the lack of power from the power grid. During the crisis, Mexico provided power to help augment the electrical needs of the San Diego area. Authorities have stated that the evacuations, which displaced more than 900,000 people, have been the largest evacuation number in the history of California. By mid-morning on October 22, 2007, thousands of evacuees were taking shelter in Qualcomm Stadium and other locations throughout San Diego. On the afternoon of October 22, 2007, the Marines evacuated some planes from Marine Corps Air Station Miramar to other military bases in California and Arizona. The Navy moved all non-essential personnel from Naval Base San Diego barracks onto nearby vessels to accommodate refugees. The San Diego Wild Animal Park moved some animals to the on-site animal hospital for their protection. The Horno Fire had charred in Camp Pendleton by 4:00 A.M PDT, on October 24, 2007. It caused the closure of Interstate 5 and it also caused Amtrak California to stop Pacific Surfliner service between Oceanside and San Clemente. Traffic was being diverted to Interstate 15, which had itself been closed earlier. Illegal migrant workers were endangered by the crisis, sometimes staying at work in the fields within mandatory evacuation zones. Many had lived in the canyons nearby and distrusted officials. When fleeing the fires, some were arrested, while others were turned away from shelters due to lack of adequate identification. Some Mexican firefighters expressed concern about their countrymen, while others felt the migrant workers were aware of the risks they were taking. coyotehowls Only a few cases of looting were documented. Six people were arrested for stealing supplies from Qualcomm stadium, another was arrested for theft after being found in possession of stolen goods in the Jamul fire area, and two were arrested near the Tecate border crossing. Air quality and effects on health The concentration of particulate matter 10 micrometers and smaller (designated PM10) reached unhealthy levels as a result of the fires. PM10 particles are small enough to enter deep into the lungs, and possibly the bloodstream. San Diego city attorney Michael Aguirre, citing concerns over weather conditions and air quality, urged the city to consider a voluntary evacuation of the entire city. Response Government agencies and volunteers worked together to mitigate the effects of the fires. According to the state of California's Consolidated Response web page, "There are 17 active fires in Southern California. The priority for fighting fires as of 19:30 on October 21 were the Buckweed, Witch, Harris, Canyon, Ranch, Santiago, and Sedgewick Fires." March Air Reserve Base is the primary staging area for relief supplies as coordinated by the Federal Emergency Management Agency. With many businesses and schools closed, some people used their time off to help others. Officials estimated that 10,000 people were gathered at Qualcomm Stadium, the largest shelter point in San Diego. Besides food, blankets and water, volunteers provided toys for children, massages, and a live rock and roll band performance. CERT teams, in various cities, received their first activation since the program's inception in this region. Trained volunteers provided assistance ranging from coordinating relief, to acting as a fire department auxiliary. Religious groups such as Victim Relief Ministries, Giving Children Hope, Hope Force International, Apostolic World Relief, and the Salvation Army responded by opening places of worship, donating supplies, and feeding workers and evacuees. The Department of Defense contributed twelve engines for firefighting efforts. The National Guard called more than 2,400 troops, with 17,000 available if needed; of which 100 California National Guard medical personnel provided medical assistance. Six crews from the Navy's Helicopter Sea Combat Squadron 85 based at Naval Air Station North Island were assigned to battle the Witch Creek fire. They flew MH-60 Seahawk helicopters equipped with a 420-gallon water bucket and they were the only local Navy teams trained to fight fires from the air. Marine Corps Air Station Miramar contributed several aircraft as well as fire fighting trucks to operations based in Ramona. One of the larger airtankers, the Martin Mars, sent through a private contract from its home in Port Alberni, British Columbia on October 25, landing on Lake Elsinore in Riverside County, California. It has a 7,000 gallon capacity. Two other airtankers and their crews from Quebec worked on the fires, part of an annual three-month contract with the state of California. California Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger declared a state of emergency in seven California counties where fires burned. President George W. Bush concurred and visited the region on Thursday, October 25, 2007. Rep. Duncan Hunter criticized state fire officials for delaying the use of Marine helicopters until CalFire spotters were in position to coordinate their efforts. However, California Fire Marshal Kate Dargan said that the Marines and officials at CalFire were following procedures worked out with the military after serious problems with air coordination during the 2003 California wildfires. Other state officials also praised the federal response. Aaron McLear, a spokesman for Schwarzenegger, said the governor "is getting everything he needs from the federal government". NBC Nightly News reported that with the evacuations reaching about 950,000 people, this was the largest peacetime movement of Americans since the Civil War era, although similar evacuation figures were cited for Hurricane Rita and Hurricane Katrina. On November 6, 2007, the state of California reported that the fires were under control. On November 9, the last vole of wildfires were finally contained. According to the state's consolidated report on the fires, Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger "called on the Blue Ribbon Task Force to assess the next steps to take at federal, state and local levels of government to prevent and fight future fires. Additionally, the Governor asked the task force to review the Governor’s Blue Ribbon Fire Commission’s recommendations, generated after the 2003 fires, to evaluate if the recommendations are still the best and most effective ways in preventing and fighting fires." See also List of California wildfires FIRESCOPE References External links Maps CalFire map LA Times managed Google map showing fire locations and relevant information MSNBC managed Virtual Earth map showing fire locations KPBS managed Google map with detailed San Diego area information San Diego County map showing evacuated areas CBS 8: San Diego fire maps Orange County Register detailed map of Santiago fire Academics and research MAP.SDSU.EDU - mapping, database and geographic information system for the 2003 and 2007 fires, managed by the San Diego GIS force group, and hosted by San Diego State University The San Diego Fire Recovery Network - a Southern California organization which addresses the widespread ecosystem changes in San Diego County caused by the 2003 and 2007 wild fires The GIS Data Center for San Diego Fire Recovery Network - hosted by San Diego State University Let Malibu Burn: A political history of the Fire Coast by Mike Davis 2007 Southern California Wildfires Web Archive at the California Digital Library. California, 2007 Wildfires in California by year

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San%20Diego%20wildfires

San Diego wildfires

The term San Diego fires or San Diego wildfires may refer to: Cedar Fire (2003) 2005 Labor Day brush fire October 2007 California wildfires#San Diego County, which includes the Witch Creek Fire and the Harris Fire Witch Fire Harris Fire May 2014 San Diego County wildfires May 2016 4S Ranch brush fire San Diego Wildfire - American Basketball Association team

13961020

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20California%20wildfires

List of California wildfires

This is a partial and incomplete list of California wildfires. California has dry, windy, and often hot weather conditions from spring through late autumn that can produce moderate to severe wildfires. Pre-1800, when the area was much more forested and the ecology much more resilient, 4.4 million acres (1.8 million hectares) of forest and shrubland burned annually. California land area totals 99,813,760 or roughly 100 million acres, so since 2000, the area that burned annually has ranged between 90,000 acres, or 0.09%, and 1,590,000 acres, or 1.59% of the total land of California. During the 2020 wildfire season alone, over 8,100 fires contributed to the burning of nearly 4.5 million acres of land. Wildfires in California are growing more dangerous because of the accumulation of wood fuel in forests, higher population and greater electricity transmission and distribution lines. United States taxpayers pay about US$3 billion a year to fight wildfires, and big fires can lead to billions of dollars in property losses. At times, these wildfires are fanned or made worse by strong, dry winds, known as Diablo winds when they occur in the northern part of the state and Santa Ana winds when they occur in the south. However, from a historical perspective, it has been estimated that prior to 1850, about 4.5 million acres (17,000 km²) burned yearly, in fires that lasted for months, with wildfire activity peaking roughly every 30 years, when up to 11.8 million acres (47,753 km³) of land burned. The much larger wildfire seasons in the past can be attributed to the policy of Native Californians regularly setting controlled burns and allowing natural fires to run their course, which prevented devastating wildfires from overrunning the state. More than 350,000 people in California live in towns sited completely within zones deemed to be at very high risk of fire. In total, more than 2.7 million people live in "very high fire hazard severity zones", which also include areas at lesser risk. On lands under CAL FIRE's jurisdictional protection (i.e. not federal or local responsibility areas), the majority of wildfire ignitions since 1980 have been caused by humans. The four most common ignition sources for wildfires on CAL FIRE-protected lands are, in order: equipment use, powerlines, arson, and lightning. Statistics Area burned per year Starting in 2001, the National Interagency Fire Center began keeping more accurate records on the total fire acreage burned in each state. A 2015 study addressed whether the increase in fire risk in California is attributable to climate change. Largest wildfires The 20 largest wildfires according to the California Department of Forestry and Fire Protection. Deadliest wildfires The 20 deadliest wildfires according to the California Department of Forestry and Fire Protection. Most destructive wildfires The 20 most destructive wildfires according to the California Department of Forestry and Fire Protection. Areas of repeated ignition In some parts of California, fires can recur in areas with histories of fires. In Oakland, for example, fires of various size and ignition occurred in 1923, 1931, 1933, 1937, 1946, 1955, 1960, 1961, 1968, 1970, 1980, 1990, 1991, 1995, 2002, and 2008. Orange County, Riverside County, San Bernardino County, and Los Angeles County are other examples. Orange and San Bernardino counties share a border that runs north to south through the Chino Hills State Park, with the park's landscape ranging from large green coastal sage scrub, grassland, and woodland, to areas of brown sparsely dense vegetation made drier by droughts or hot summers. The valley's grass and barren land can become easily susceptible to dry spells and drought, therefore making it a prime spot for brush fires and conflagrations, many of which have occurred since 1914. Hills and canyons have seen brush or wildfires in 1914, the 1920s, 1930s, 1940s, 1950s, 1960s, 1970s, 1980s, 1990s, 2000s, and into today. On occasion, lightning strikes from thunderstorms may also spark wildfires in areas that have seen past ignition. Examples of this are the 1999 Megram Fire, the 2008 California wildfires., as well as both the LNU and SCU Lightning Complex fires of 2020. See also List of wildfires 2012–13 North American drought Wildfires in the United States Climate change in California References External links Official California Department of Forestry and Fire Protection (CAL FIRE) site Wildfires Wildfire Lists of wildfires in the United States

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1921%20Mari%20wildfires

1921 Mari wildfires

Wildfires in the Mari Autonomous Oblast, in the east of European Russia, occurred in the summer of 1921. Damage included 2,660 square kilometres of pine forest burned off, with serious repercussions for industry in the area, already paralyzed by the Povolzhye famine. The wildfires led to 35 human and 1,000 cattle deaths, and 60 villages were destroyed. The effects of the fire were made worse by strong winds. References https://web.archive.org/web/20160304124904/http://www.finugor.ru/?q=node%2F875 http://forestforum.ru/phorum/viewtopic.php?printertopic=1&t=2599&postdays=0&postorder=asc&&start=70&sid=95d5f70c5d148c910f851125b822e423 History of Mari El 1921 Mari 1921 in Russia 1920s fires in Europe 1921 fires 1920s wildfires

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West%20Virginia%20Wildfire

West Virginia Wildfire

The West Virginia Wildfire is a women's American football team in the Women's Spring Football League since 2011. The first women's football team in West Virginia, the Wildfire is based in the city of Belle. In their inaugural season, the WildKats were known as the West Virginia Wonders and played in the National Women's Football Association. After that inaugural season, the team was originally set to play in the Women's Football Alliance for 2009 as the West Virginia WildKats, but then they decided to take the next two seasons off to reorganize further. In 2012, the Wildfire won their first ever championship, winning the WSFL's 8-man division title. In 2013, the Wildfire beat the Binghamton Tigercats 44–8 to win their second consecutive WSFL 8-man title. Season-by-season |- | colspan="6" align="center" | West Virginia Wonders (NWFA) |- |2008 || 0 || 8 || 0 || 4th North Central || -- |- |2009 || colspan="6" rowspan="2" align="center" | Did Not Play |- |2010 |- | colspan="6" align="center" | West Virginia Wildfire (WSFL) |- |2011 || 0 || 3 || 1 || -- || -- |- |2012 || 5 || 2 || 0 || 1st 8-man division || Champions |- |2013 || 6 || 0 || 0 || 1st 8-man division || Champions |- !Totals || 11 || 13 || 1 |colspan="2"| (including playoffs) External links West Virginia Wildfire website National Women's Football Association teams Women's Spring Football League teams Sports in Charleston, West Virginia American football teams in West Virginia American football teams established in 2008 2008 establishments in West Virginia Women's sports in West Virginia

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20Wildfire%20episodes

List of Wildfire episodes

The following is a list of the episodes for the ABC Family drama Wildfire. Episode summaries are from Genevieve Cortese Fan.com Series overview Episodes Season 1 (2005) Season 2 (2006) Season 3 (2007) Season 4 (2008) External links Wildfire

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20Washington%20wildfires

List of Washington wildfires

This is an incomplete list of major wildfires in Washington state history. Washington wildfires ordered by size This list only includes "major fires" that destroyed over , incurred fatalities or damaged a significant amount of property. With a lag of 1 to 2 years, more or less complete data is available from 2002 on via the website with incident status summaries maintained by the National Fire and Aviation Management. Older fires are increasingly underreported. For example, none of the wildfires of 1926-31 and 1943 that together destroyed more than 500,000 acres of the Colville National Forest are included. Year-by-year statistics Wildfire seasons are defined by Washington state law as lasting from April 15 through October 15 of each year, allowing for burn bans and other restrictions to be imposed on state lands by the Washington State Department of Natural Resources during that time. According to a North American Seasonal Fire Assessment and Outlook report issued in June, 2019, the summer months represent peak fire season. Notes References External links Okanogan National Forest Pacific Northwest National Incident Management Team 2 Historical Incident ICS-209 Reports Firefighting in Washington (state) Forestry in the United States Washington

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2008%20California%20wildfires

2008 California wildfires

The 2008 California wildfire season was one of the most devastating in the state of the 21st century. While 6,255 fires occurred, about two-thirds as many as in 2007, the total area burned— —far exceeded that of previous years. By July 5, 2008, 328 wildfires were burning, and those fires were only 81% contained. For the first time since 1977, the US military helped with ground-based firefighting, when Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger dispatched 400 California National Guard troops, including Chief Medical Officer Susan Pangelinan, to manage fire lines. He said the number of fires had stretched the state's fire-fighting resources thin. "One never has resources for 1,700 fires. Who has the resources for that?" Schwarzenegger said, adding, "Something is happening, clearly. There's more need for resources than ever before... it's fire season all year round." Fires Below is a list of all fires that exceeded during the 2008 fire season. The list is taken from CAL FIRE's list of large fires. Summer fires The Summer 2008 fires were a concentrated outbreak of wildfires during the late spring and summer of 2008. Over 3,596 individual fires were burning at the height of the period, burning large portions of forests and chaparral in California, injuring at least 34 individuals and killing 32. The majority of the fires were started by lightning from dry thunderstorms on June 20, although some earlier fires ignited during mid-May. International aid from Greece, Cyprus, Chile, Argentina, Brazil, Australia, Canada, Mexico, and New Zealand helped fight the fires. The first of the wildfires was the Big Horn Fire, which ignited on May 13. Three other minor wildfires ignited subsequently, but were extinguished by May 17. On May 20, the Avocado Fire ignited in Fresno County, only to be extinguished 2 days later. On May 22, 2008, the human-caused Summit Fire broke out in the Santa Cruz Mountains, which became the first major fire. On July 5, 2008, California Governor Schwarzenegger commented that "I've been driving up and down the state of California going to all the various fires, and you can imagine, this state is very prepared for fire, but when you wake up one morning and have 500 fires across the state, it was a real shock to me... only to find the next morning there were 1,000 fires, and the next morning 1,400 fires, and then 1,700 fires igniting over 14 days." The Gap Fire near Goleta in Santa Barbara County burned . The fire was contained on July 29, after several weeks of activity. By July 11, 2008, it was reported that a total of was burned, a total exceeding the initial estimate of burned by the October 2007 California wildfires. On July 12, 2008, the area burned reached , exceeding the estimated burned by the 2003 California wildfires, making the Summer 2008 wildfires the greatest wildfire event in Californian history, in terms of burned area. On that date 20,274 personnel had been committed to fight the fires. Total resources included 467 hand crews, 1,503 engines, 423 water tenders, 291 bulldozers, 142 helicopters, 400 soldiers and numerous air tankers. The fire was responsible for the deaths of 23 individuals. On July 25, a blaze sparked by target shooting broke out in Mariposa County, in the Sierra Nevada foothills of central California. By the following day, the Telegraph Fire had gone from , and within days had destroyed 21 homes in the community of Midpines. Residents were evacuated from approximately 300 homes that were immediately threatened, with an additional 4,000 homes placed on standby for evacuation in Midpines, Greeley Hill, and Coulterville. During August, wildfire activity began to diminish, although there were still hundreds of wildfires still burning. On August 29, wildfire activity had largely ended, although three more wildfires ignited after September 1, beginning with the Gladding Fire. On September 10, the Colony Fire was 100% contained, ending the last of the Summer 2008 California wildfires. The Summer 2008 wildfires burned a total of between May 2008 and September 2008, comprising the vast majority of burned land by wildfires in California in 2008. In total, the Summer 2008 wildfires burned a total of , which accounts for 84% of the total area burned during the 2008 wildfire season. In addition, the Summer 2008 fires cost over $92.38 million (2008 USD) to fight. The Basin Complex Fire in the Ventana Wilderness became the third largest wildfire in California's history based on size (until it was surpassed in size by the 2013 Rim Fire), and also the second-costliest wildfire to extinguish in U.S. history. Weather The fires broke out after three years of below-normal rainfall dehydrated much of California's forests and woodlands, making them prone to wildfires. Spring 2008 for California was the driest on record for many locations; for example, San Francisco registered only of rain out of a normal of from March to May. As vegetation turned into bone-dry tinder in early June, Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger declared a statewide drought for the first time in 17 years. Dry thunderstorms and lightning, rarely seen on the California coastline in June, rolled onshore on the weekend of June 20–21. The storm unleashed 25,000 to 26,000 dry lightning strikes across Northern and Central California, igniting more than 2,000 fires. The number of wildfires skyrocketed in the days after the thunderstorms and high daily daytime temperatures of over dramatically increased the various fires' growth. The same thunderstorms also caused fires in Oregon. A heat wave commenced on July 7, with temperatures in inland locations, such as the Central Valley soaring above . Lake Berryessa recorded a high temperature of , prompting weather agencies like the National Weather Service to issue high fire danger warnings. These near to record-breaking temperatures concerned many firefighters, who feared that the high heat, low humidity, and high-elevation winds could make firefighting more strenuous. Contributing factors John Juskie, a National Weather Service science officer, was quoted in June 2008 in the Los Angeles Times stating "in historic terms, we're at record dry levels." The spring of 2008 not only broke the record for least inches of rainfall, at 0.17 of an inch, it represented less than one-third of the previous record low of 0.55 of an inch of rainfall in 1934. A record lack of rainfall, severely dry vegetation and uncharacteristically windy weather combined to create tinderbox conditions across Northern California. In most areas of Northern California, the grasses and brush were as dry in June as they normally would be in October. Moisture content was less than 2%, compared with about 40% normally for this time of year, fire officials stated. In addition, "no one has seen a springtime like this with the winds," Juskie said. Smoke and air quality Air quality in northern and central California deteriorated as a result of smoke from the wildfires, especially in the Central Valley from Bakersfield in the southern San Joaquin Valley section to Redding in the northern Sacramento Valley section. Northern California From June 21 to June 27, much of Northern California was covered in a thick blanket of smoke, which reduced visibility and turned the sky yellow and the Moon red. Some areas endured record levels of air pollution, along with hazardous concentrations of particulate matter. These smoky and hazy conditions prompted health officials to issue air quality advisories and warnings, as particulate matter reached unhealthy levels in the North Bay on June 25. In the San Francisco Bay Area, the Bay Area Air Quality Management District urged the elderly and people with respiratory problems to stay indoors. In spite of the warnings, health officials noted a jump in the number of people with eye and throat irritation. The bad air quality also forced the cancellation of the Western States Endurance Run, the first in the race's 31-year history. Air quality began to improve on June 28, followed by decreased smoke and improved visibility a day later. By June 30, residents in the Sacramento Valley saw blue skies and good air quality, as a result of onshore winds and the Delta breezes. However, air quality in Oregon degraded as plumes of smoke drifted northward instead of concentrating in the Central Valley. Spare the Air Hazy conditions returned on July 7, along with high temperatures over in the Central Valley. The heat and smoke combined forced public health officials and Gov. Arnold Schwarzenegger to issue "Spare the Air" advisories and an emergency plan for heat waves, respectively. Air quality districts issued another Spare the Air day for July 8, July 9, and July 10, as calm wind conditions in Northern California failed to blow away the smoke from the wildfires. Smoky conditions continued into late August, when most of the wildfires were extinguished. The smoke from the fires finally began to disperse on September 10, after the last of the wildfires was fully contained. Health Impact A paper in the American Journal of Respiratory Cell and Molecular Biology studied a group of adolescent rhesus macaque monkeys that were exposed during infancy to smoke from northern California wildfires in 2008. They found that monkeys exposed to wildfire smoke as infants had "significantly reduced inspiratory capacity, residual volume, vital capacity, and functional residual capacity per unit of body weight." There was also a trend of reduced total lung capacity in animals exposed to wildfire smoke as infants. Adolescent monkeys exposed to wildfire smoke as infants were also found to have a lessened PBMCs responses to TLR Ligands. TLR5 has been linked with the asthma phenotype experimentally and in human subjects. An important finding in the study was that monkeys over 200 miles away from the combustion were still found to have significant immune and respiratory changes. The findings were consistent with many other human group studies and suggest that children who underwent the same experience as the monkeys in the study have a high chance of exhibiting similar health problems but, that because normal development of rhesus monkeys is accelerated compared to human children the relative impact of this amount of wildfire smoke exposure might differ. November Fires The month of November saw a large number of fires, around 2,151, which began burning across Southern California on November 13, with 4 of them becoming major wildfires. At least 400 houses and 500 mobile homes were destroyed. According to USA Today, these wildfires combined with those from October 2007 and the Summer of 2008 were the worst group of wildfires that California had experienced in two decades. Los Angeles Mayor Antonio Villaraigosa told residents, "If you wait until the fire gets there you have waited too long, this fire can be on you in a moment's notice." California Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger declared a state of emergency in Santa Barbara, Los Angeles, and Orange Counties. Governor Schwarzenegger described the conditions contributing to the fires as a "perfect storm," including strong Santa Ana and sundowner winds, with gusts reaching , as well as high temperatures, low humidity, and dry conditions. The most significant fires were the following: Montecito Tea Fire - a wildfire that started on November 13, 2008, in the wealthy community of Montecito, in Santa Barbara County, California, resulting in the destruction of 210 homes. Many celebrities have homes in the area of the Tea Fire, including Oprah Winfrey, Rob Lowe, and Steven Spielberg. The home of actor Christopher Lloyd was destroyed in the fire. Sayre Fire - a wildfire that started on November 13, 2008, in the Sylmar section of Los Angeles, California, resulting in the destruction of at least 630 structures, including 500 mobile homes, nine single-family homes, and eleven commercial buildings. The loss of more than 500 residences is the "worst loss of homes due to fire" ever in the City of Los Angeles, California, exceeding the loss of 484 residences in the 1961 Bel Air fire. Freeway Complex Fire - The combination of 2 wildfires, one of which was known as the Corona Fire by the news media, or Triangle Complex Fire, that started at approximately 9:00 a.m. PDT on November 15, 2008, and spread across the communities of Corona, Chino Hills, Yorba Linda, Anaheim Hills and Brea in Orange and Riverside County, California, and also spread to Diamond Bar in Los Angeles County. Later on November 15, the Landfill Fire ignited at 10:45 AM, and early on May 16, both wildfires merged into the Freeway Complex Fire. The Freeway Complex Fire burned about , injured 14 firefighters, and destroyed about 200 structures, and forced the evacuations of about 7,000 homes. Fatalities During the season, the National Interagency Fire Center reported 13 firefighter fatalities while battling wildfires. Nine were killed in a helicopter crash, while others died of a heart attack, a falling tree, and an entrapment. In all, 32 people were killed by the wildfires. See also October 2007 California wildfires 2017 California wildfires October 2017 Northern California wildfires Rush Fire List of California wildfires References California, 2008 Wildfires in California by year

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wildfire%20%28motor%20company%29

Wildfire (motor company)

Wildfire Motors was a company based in Steubenville, Ohio, specializing in the sales of scooters, motorcycles, ATVs, cyclecars, and electric vehicles. The vehicles are manufactured in China and are distributed throughout the United States. This distributor has ten cases under review with the Ohio Attorney General and 30 with the Better Business Bureau. The United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) announced on April 3, 2013, that it is withdrawing approval of the import and sale of up to 74,000 gas-powered on- and off-road motorcycles and all-terrain vehicles from China. The agency believes that it received either incomplete or falsified certification information. Former Models WF650-T and WF650-C The Wildfire WF650-T is a three-wheeled truck. The Wildfire WF650-C is a three-wheeled hatchback sedan. Both are registered with the Department of Transportation as motorcycles. They are powered by a 650 cc water-cooled 4-stroke twin engine. The manufacturer states the vehicles get up to 60 miles per gallon, although some dealers have suggested 40–60 miles per gallon is a more realistic figure. Both vehicles are manufactured by Jiangsu Sandi Motorcycle Co Ltd. On April 3, 2013, the EPA withdrew its approval of the import and sale of over 70,000 gas-powered on- and off-road motorcycles and all-terrain vehicles because the agency believes that it received either incomplete or falsified certification information. The EPA issued the vehicle certificates from 2006 to 2012 to two companies which operate as Snyder Technology, Inc. and Snyder Computer Systems, Inc. (doing business as Wildfire Motors Corporation). As a result of a lengthy investigation, the agency believes that the applications for the certificates contained fallacious information and must be voided. All vehicles imported into or manufactured in the United States are required to have certificates of conformity. WF-120V Total Electric NEV and WF-72V The WF-120V is a two-seat coupe manufactured by Shandong Huoyun Electric Car Co., Ltd, located in Zibo, China. The WF-72 V is a four-seat sedan manufactured by Shandong Pioneer Motorcycle Co., Ltd. The WF-120 is powered by an 8.5 kilowatt, 120 volt AC motor. The WF-72 V is powered by an 8.5 kilowatt, 72 volt, AC motor. The styling of the WF-120 V seems to be a copy of the Smart, including lines in quarter panels where the Smart doors are supposed to close. This appears to be a liability and the owner of the Smart design (Mercedes) may force the manufacturer to stop import or take other legal action. As they are registered as neighborhood electric vehicles, both are programmed by the manufacturer not to exceed 25 miles per hour but can be adjusted to run up to 50 miles per hour. WF250-T and WF250-C The WF250-T is a three-wheeled truck. The WF250-C is a three-wheeled hatchback sedan. Both were manufactured by Shandong Pioneer Motorcycle Co., Ltd. as well as Ammar Motor Company, which manufactures right hand drive versions and is located in Karachi, Pakistan. References External links Shandong Huoyun Electric Car Co., Ltd Shandong Pioneer Motorcycle Co., Ltd. Taixing Sandi Motorcycle Co Ltd. Vehicle manufacturing companies established in 1998 Defunct motor vehicle manufacturers of the United States Battery electric vehicle manufacturers Car manufacturers of the United States Electric vehicle manufacturers of the United States

18695611

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wildfire%20%28Michael%20Martin%20Murphey%20song%29

Wildfire (Michael Martin Murphey song)

"Wildfire" is a song written by Michael Murphey and Larry Cansler. It was originally recorded by Murphey, who had yet to add his middle name to his recorded work, and appears on his gold-plus 1975 album Blue Sky – Night Thunder. Released in February 1975 as the album's lead single, "Wildfire" became Murphey's highest-charting pop hit in the United States. The somber story song hit No. 2 in Cash Box and No. 3 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart in June 1975. In addition, it hit the top position of the Billboard Adult Contemporary chart, displacing "Love Will Keep Us Together". The single continued to sell, eventually receiving platinum certification from the RIAA, signifying sales of over two million US copies. Members of the Western Writers of America chose it as one of the Top 100 Western songs of all time. Background Murphey and Cansler co-wrote "Wildfire" in 1968, shortly after Murphey emerged as a solo artist. Earlier in the decade he had been part of a duo known as the Lewis & Clark Expedition in 1968 with singer-songwriter Boomer Castleman. They appeared and performed in an episode of the TV sitcom I Dream of Jeannie. When Murphey rerecorded "Wildfire" for a new album in 1997, he was quoted by Billboard as saying that what many consider his signature song "broke my career wide open and, on some level, still keeps it fresh. Because that song appeals to kids, and always has, it's kept my career fresh." In a 2008 interview, Murphey talked about the origins of the song and the context in which it was written. He was a third-year student at UCLA, working on a concept album for Kenny Rogers (The Ballad of Calico). The work was demanding, sometimes taking more than 20 hours a day. One night, he dreamed the song in its totality, writing it up in a few hours the next morning. He believes the song came to him from a story his grandfather told him when he was a little boy – a prominent Native American legend about a ghost horse. Murphey did not have a horse named Wildfire until a few years before the interview, when he gave that name to a palomino mare. Content The lyrics are those of a homesteader telling the story of a young Nebraska woman said to have died searching for her escaped pony, "Wildfire", during a blizzard. The homesteader finds himself in a similar situation, doomed in an early winter storm. A hoot owl has perched outside of his window for six nights, and the homesteader believes the owl is a sign that the ghost of the young woman is calling for him. He hopes to join her (presumably in heaven) and spend eternity riding Wildfire with her, leaving the difficulties of earthly life behind. The song has a piano intro and outro which was edited out for radio. The introduction is based on a piece (Prelude in D-flat, Op. 11 No. 15) by the Russian classical composer Alexander Scriabin. Personnel Michael Murphey – vocals, piano Jac Murphy – piano (intro and outro) Sam Broussard – guitar Richard Dean – guitar, background vocals Michael McKinney – bass, background vocals Harry Wilkinson – drums Jeff Hanna – background vocals Jimmy Ibbotson – background vocals John McEuen – mandolin Chart performance Weekly charts Year-end charts In popular culture In 2007, the host of The Late Show, David Letterman, developed a sudden fascination with "Wildfire", discussing the song and its lyrics—particularly the line about "leave sodbustin' behind"—with the bandleader Paul Shaffer over the course of several weeks. This ultimately led to Murphey's being invited on the show to perform "Wildfire". Letterman described the song as "haunting and disturbingly mysterious, but always lovely," and surmised that the performance would leave the studio audience with "a palpable sense of ... mysticism, melancholy ... and uplifting well-being." In a third-season episode of The Simpsons named "Lisa's Pony", Lisa played the song for her pony with her saxophone. She introduced the song by saying "This next song is also about a girl and her pony. It's called 'Wildfire'." The song has occasionally appeared in "bad song" surveys, such as one by the humor columnist Dave Barry during the 1990s. He quoted one reader who, referring to the song's tale of the loss of a woman and a pony in a "killing frost", pointed out that "'killing' in 'killing frost' refers to your flowers and your garden vegetables, and when one is forecast you should cover your tomatoes ... Nobody ever got lost in a killing frost who wouldn't get lost in July as well." Covers Tracy Byrd covered the song on his 2001 album Ten Rounds. Doris Day covered the song on her 1986 television series Doris Day's Best Friends. The recording was released on her album Music, Movies and Memories. The song is included in The Langley Schools Music Project album. See also List of number-one adult contemporary singles of 1975 (U.S.) References 1975 singles Michael Martin Murphey songs Tracy Byrd songs RPM Top Singles number-one singles Songs written by Michael Martin Murphey Song recordings produced by Bob Johnston Epic Records singles 1975 songs Songs about horses Songs about death

18722896

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calgary%20Wildfire

Calgary Wildfire

Calgary Wildfire were a W-League club based in Calgary, Alberta, Canada. Year-by-year Women's soccer clubs in Canada W United Soccer League teams based in Canada Defunct USL W-League (1995–2015) teams

18790395

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wildfire%20history%20of%20Cape%20Cod

Wildfire history of Cape Cod

The wildfire potential of the forests of Cape Cod, located in southeastern Massachusetts, has been described as being the third most flammable area in the nation, behind southern California and the New Jersey Pine Barrens. With the development of the Cape from the 1960s to the present, the wildfire danger has diminished but thousands of acres are still capable of burning. History Pre-European Before Europeans settled the Cape, the forests were periodically burned by lightning strikes and the Wampanoag version of the prescribed burn. This kept the amount of underbrush to a minimum, thus allowing the Cape to experience few, if any, major wildfires. Excavations of charcoal, pollen and sediment from Mary Dunn Pond, in Barnstable show that the Wampanoag practiced periodic burns. The area around the Indian Ponds of Barnstable, including Mystic Lake, Middle Pond, and Hamblin Pond used to be burned by natives who would then subsequently use the land in small plots to farm. Colonization In the 1620s, the Cape was forever altered by the settlement of Europeans. The settlers did not like periodic fires in their backyards, and they put out any fire before it could really burn and do damage. This, and massive deforestation by the initial settlers, led to a large amount of brush accumulating in the surviving woods of the Cape. Unfortunately for the settlers, this caused fires, when they occurred, to really burn and explode instead of burning along the ground. The forests of this time were small and spread out so there was not much potential for disaster, but that changed after industrialization. Industrial Age The discovery of the New World led to newfound industries to many Europeans. One was shipbuilding. This was important on the Cape because the tall trees which survived the mass deforestation of the initial settlement, led to the major expansion of the shipbuilding industry. This, along with the decreased farming of the land, created an opportunity for pitch pine and scrub oak to grow in abundance. This land was divided up into individual firewood plots. Some of this wood was bought up by the Boston and Sandwich Glass Company, which operated from 1825 to 1888 and the Barnstable Brick Company, which operated from 1878 to 1929. Unfortunately, this led to many fires burning many acres because the forests began to connect. Modern era In the early 1900s, the Cape started to become part of the state's fire lookout tower network. Towers were constructed in many towns to make it easier to coordinate firefighting. Massive burns occurred in the forests, larger than any seen since pre-colonial times. This was especially true on the Upper Cape, where the forests had matured more than the rest of Cape Cod. Modern techniques for fighting these fires include controlled burns and the clearing of brush. The discontinuation of live firing at the Massachusetts Military Reservation has also contributed to the decrease in the intensity of the fires. The military has helped with the hazard by periodically burning portions of the land to prevent these massive fires. According to a study published in 2003, the Cape has a fire that burns on the hundreds to thousands of acres size every 30 to 50 years. Camp Edwards was excluded from this research because it burns more with the munitions on the base. See also Changes in the Land: Indians, Colonists, and the Ecology of New England References External links Wildland Fire and Preparedness Plan For West Barnstable Conservation Area and Adjacent Open Space Lands Mass. DCR Forest Fire Control page Wildfires Fires in Massachusetts Natural disasters in Massachusetts Forest history Wildfires in the United States Environmental history of the United States

18992614

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2008%20Borjomi%20Wildfire

2008 Borjomi Wildfire

The 2008 Borjomi wildfires started in the Borjomi Gorge, Georgia on August 15, 2008 and lasted for several days to come, destroying of the Borjomi-Kharagauli National Park, one of the largest national parks in Europe. The fire started in the concluding days of the hostilities during the 2008 Russo-Georgian War, some 80 km far from the conflict area. Eyewitnesses reported camouflage-painted helicopters in the sky just before the fire erupted. Georgia accused Russia of bombing the area and deliberating starting a fire using incendiary devices, describing it as an ecocide. Russia's Defence Ministry denied bombing the forests and said that they would help the Georgians extinguish the fires if requested. Despite Turkish and Ukrainian aid, the firefighting efforts were complicated by the ongoing conflict and airspace restrictions. According to the government of Georgia, The Borjomi wildfire alarmed international environmental organizations. The World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) called on "all parties capable of helping put out forest fires in central Georgia to work together to extinguish them." The PAN Parks network, of which the Borjomi-Kharagauli National Park is a member, sent a latter to the Russian Minister of Natural Resources, expressing its concerns that the "recent bombing in Borjomi district resulted in a forest fire, which threatens Borjomi Kharagauli National Park." The World Bank expressed its "grave concern the reports of forest fires in the Borjomi area of Georgia" and sent an assessment team in the area. The Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe-UNEP mission will also assess the damage caused by fire, including in the Borjomi-Kharagauli National Park and adjacent forested areas. References External links Satellite images by UNOSAT Fires in Georgia (country) Natural disasters in Georgia (country) 2008 Borjomi wildfire 2008 in Georgia (country) 2008 wildfires August 2008 events in Asia 2008 disasters in Georgia (country) 2008 fires in Asia

19269543

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1996%20Pat%20Sin%20Leng%20wildfire

1996 Pat Sin Leng wildfire

The 1996 Pat Sin Leng wildfire took place in Pat Sin Leng, Tai Po, New Territories, Hong Kong on 10February, 1996 (Saturday). It was the worst wildfire in local history. The disaster killed three students and two teachers at the Hong Kong Chinese Women's Club Fung Yiu King Memorial Secondary School and injured a further 13 students. The Hong Kong Government built a "Spring Breeze Pavilion" on Pat Sin Leng to commemorate the two teachers who died saving the students in the tragedy. After the disaster, the area suffered from soil erosion, but the vegetation has since regrown. Background events On 10 February, 1996, 49 students of HKCWC Fung Yiu King Memorial Secondary School were led by five teachers in the "Golden Leg" Hiking activities which were held jointly by Geographic Society of the school and the Duke of Edinburgh Award Scheme (now Hong Kong Award for Young People). The plan was to hike from the Agriculture and Fisheries Department Plover Cove Country Park Visitor Centre to Hok Tau, Fanling via Section 9 and 10 of Wilson Trail on Pat Sin Leng. It was an extremely dry day with a relative humidity of 31 per cent. The Hong Kong Observatory had issued a Red Fire Danger Warning, warning of a very high risk of wildfires. The fire was discovered at about 11:20, just as the group was around 150 metres away from Hsien Ku Fung. The fire quickly spread upwards, out of control. As the downhill escape route was blocked by the fire, the group was forced to flee up hill. Thirty-two students escaped and raised the alarm; but 18 people were trapped in Ma Lau Ai (Monkey Cliff). Teachers Chow Chi-Tsai and Wong Shuo Mei perished attempting to help students escape, while other injured students were left on the cliff in wait for rescue. Rescue operation More than 200 staff and volunteers from the Hong Kong Fire Service department, Agriculture and Fisheries Department (AFD), and the Civil Aid Service (CAS) were dispatched and the search and rescue operation commenced at 12:23. The Government Flying Service (GFS) sent two helicopters to help fight the fire and rescue the severely injured. Rescuers provided first aid on the scene. Seriously injured victims were rushed to hospital by helicopters, while those with less severe injuries were carried away by the rescue crew. The first group of victims were sent to Tai Po Jockey Club Clinic. Ten seriously injured victims were transferred to the Prince of Wales Hospital in Sha Tin, which has a specialist burns unit. A female who suffered burns to 70 per cent of her skin was rushed to the intensive care unit for advance treatment. Government Flying Service rescue accident An unusual incident occurred with the Government Flying Service's helicopter in the rescue operation. Two casualties were spotted when crew members landed using the helicopter's winch sling. In accordance with the Code of Practice, they fastened their safety belt before pulling the victims onto the helicopter. However, due to his sight being obscured by the smoke, the pilot was unable to see the victims. The helicopter succeeded only in lifting the rescuer as it climbed, as the harness was not properly fastened around the casualties. The helicopter returned to rescue two casualties, who were thought to be those who fell during previous rescue, but they were proved mistaken. The next day, rescuers found the last missing person, and found he was one of the victims who fell in the initial rescue attempt. Casualties and damage The wildfire burnt for over 40 hours. At 11:00 the following day, all fires were extinguished. Casualties: 5 (Teacher Chow Chi-Tsai, Wong Shuo Mei and three students) Injured: 13 Burnt area: 20 hectares Post-disaster review The Coroner's Court hearings were held in May 1996. The coroner believed that the fire was caused by students smoking. The court also noted that the teacher-student ratio was 1 to 12, less than the 1 to 10 standard. The teachers also did not have appropriate telecommunication devices. Some criticised the procedure that ambulances had to carry patients to the nearest emergency department, before transferring patients to a better-equipped hospital, prolonging the journey by four kilometres and delaying treatment. Furthermore, The Tai Po Jockey Club Clinic (the only medical centre in Tai Po at the time) lacked the ability to handle any large-scale crisis. Another criticism was that the Hong Kong Government's emergency Co-ordination Centre was not in operation during this incident, hence the search and rescue effort was somewhat lacking in co-ordination. References 1990s fires in Asia 1996 fires 1996 in Hong Kong Fires in Hong Kong 1996 natural disasters 1990s wildfires Wildfires in China 1996 disasters in Asia

19326649

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HMS%20Wildfire

HMS Wildfire

Five ships and a number of shore establishments of the British Royal Navy have borne the name HMS Wildfire: Ships was a fireship, previously the civilian vessel John, built 1766. She was purchased in 1804 and sold in 1807. was a wood paddle packet, previously the GPO ship Watersprite. She was launched in 1826, transferred to the Navy in 1837 and was sold in 1888. was a screw yacht tender purchased in 1888. She was used as a base ship from 1889 and was renamed HMS Undine in 1907. She was sold in 1912. Shore establishments was a shore establishment established at Sheerness in 1889. It closed in 1933 but re-opened in 1937. It was paid off in 1950. A number of ships were renamed HMS Wildfire whilst serving as base and depot ships for the establishment: was the original base ship from 1889 until 1907. was HMS Wildfire from 1906 until 1916. was HMS Wildfire between 1916 and 1957. was a communications training establishment and Royal Naval Reserve headquarters in Chatham (Gillingham) commissioned in 1964 and paid off in 1993. is a Maritime Reserves (Royal Navy) unit located in Northwood. It was previously named HMS Northwood but was renamed HMS Wildfire in 2000. Other shore establishments have been commissioned as tenders and subordinate bases to the main HMS Wildfires, and have shared the name, with an identifying numeral: HMS Wildfire II was an accounting base at Sheerness between 1939 and 1940. HMS Wildfire III was an accounting base at Sheerness in 1940. HMS Wildfire III was the commanding officer's base and a tender to HMS Wildfire between 1942 and 1946. External links Short history of HMS Wildfire one to seven Short history of HMS Wildfire eight Royal Navy ship names

19626445

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wildfire%20Wildfire

Wildfire Wildfire

Wildfire Wildfire Records is an American independent record label based in Baltimore, Maryland. History The Wildfire Wildfire project was founded in 2005 by Devon Deimler, Matthew Papich, and Michael Petruzzo while students at the Maryland Institute College of Art in Baltimore, MD. While there, Deimler and Papich became friends with many musicians of different influences and were inspired to collaborate and curate shows according to their own aesthetic. A website was created and managed to announce independent local shows of their liking and often featured drawings of local bands as a visual element. In 2006, Wildfire Wildfire became a record label as well, intending their first release to be a Baltimore mixtape by Cex. In addition to releasing records, Wildfire Wildfire has also hosted dozens of DIY music shows, many notably at the warehouse space Floristree in downtown Baltimore. In 2007, they collaborated with Dan Deacon to curate and host the Whartscape Festival, and in 2008 collaborated with Floristree to present Full House Festival, which included a performance by the Krautrock band Cluster. Matthew Papich is also a founding member of Ecstatic Sunshine and is currently the band's only permanent member. Manifesto On their website, Wildfire Wildfire lists their influences as 60s zine culture and its art world crossover, along with an early DIY punk rock ethos. Notes Deimler, such a combination allows the label "to release music and artwork important to our generation of experimentation". Poster design and multimedia elements beyond music are often incorporated into Wildfire-curated shows, blurring the line between the art and music world. Wildfire Wildfire illustration, media, and poster design have become a staple in the burgeoning Baltimore experimental music scene Catalog WFWF001 - Santa Dads Anima Mundi CD WFWF002 - Thank You World City CD WFWF003 - Dan Deacon Spiderman of the Rings LP WFWF004 - Video Hippos Unbeast the Leash LP WFWF005 - OCDJ Hooray CD WFWF006 - Ecstatic Sunshine Living EP + CD WFWF007 - Cex Dannibal LP WFWF008 - Sandcats / Car Clutch Friendship/Trip01 Split 7" WFWF009 - Lucky Dragons / Ecstatic Sunshine Friendship/Trip02 Split 7" WFWF010 - Dustin Wong Seasons LP (June 2009) WFWF011 - Jason Willett / Jason Urick Friendship/Trip03 Split 7" External links Wildfire Wildfire - official site Notes American independent record labels Record labels based in Maryland

20115268

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wildfire%20modeling

Wildfire modeling

Wildfire modeling is concerned with numerical simulation of wildfires to comprehend and predict fire behavior. Wildfire modeling aims to aid wildfire suppression, increase the safety of firefighters and the public, and minimize damage. Wildfire modeling can also aid in protecting ecosystems, watersheds, and air quality. Using computational science, wildfire modeling involves the statistical analysis of past fire events to predict spotting risks and front behavior. Various wildfire propagation models have been proposed in the past, including simple ellipses and egg- and fan-shaped models. Early attempts to determine wildfire behavior assumed terrain and vegetation uniformity. However, the exact behavior of a wildfire's front is dependent on a variety of factors, including wind speed and slope steepness. Modern growth models utilize a combination of past ellipsoidal descriptions and Huygens' Principle to simulate fire growth as a continuously expanding polygon. Extreme value theory may also be used to predict the size of large wildfires. However, large fires that exceed suppression capabilities are often regarded as statistical outliers in standard analyses, even though fire policies are more influenced by large wildfires than by small fires. Objectives Wildfire modeling attempts to reproduce fire behavior, such as how quickly the fire spreads, in which direction, how much heat it generates. A key input to behavior modeling is the Fuel Model, or type of fuel, through which the fire is burning. Behavior modeling can also include whether the fire transitions from the surface (a "surface fire") to the tree crowns (a "crown fire"), as well as extreme fire behavior including rapid rates of spread, fire whirls, and tall well-developed convection columns. Fire modeling also attempts to estimate fire effects, such as the ecological and hydrological effects of the fire, fuel consumption, tree mortality, and amount and rate of smoke produced. Environmental factors Wildland fire behavior is affected by weather, fuel characteristics, and topography. Weather influences fire through wind and moisture. Wind increases the fire spread in the wind direction, higher temperature makes the fire burn faster, while higher relative humidity, and precipitation (rain or snow) may slow it down or extinguish it altogether. Weather involving fast wind changes can be particularly dangerous, since they can suddenly change the fire direction and behavior. Such weather includes cold fronts, foehn winds, thunderstorm downdrafts, sea and land breeze, and diurnal slope winds. Wildfire fuel includes grass, wood, and anything else that can burn. Small dry twigs burn faster while large logs burn slower; dry fuel ignites more easily and burns faster than wet fuel. Topography factors that influence wildfires include the orientation toward the sun, which influences the amount of energy received from the sun, and the slope (fire spreads faster uphill). Fire can accelerate in narrow canyons and it can be slowed down or stopped by barriers such as creeks and roads. These factors act in combination. Rain or snow increases the fuel moisture, high relative humidity slows the drying of the fuel, while winds can make fuel dry faster. Wind can change the fire-accelerating effect of slopes to effects such as downslope windstorms (called Santa Anas, foehn winds, East winds, depending on the geographic location). Fuel properties may vary with topography as plant density varies with elevation or aspect with respect to the sun. It has long been recognized that "fires create their own weather." That is, the heat and moisture created by the fire feed back into the atmosphere, creating intense winds that drive the fire behavior. The heat produced by the wildfire changes the temperature of the atmosphere and creates strong updrafts, which can change the direction of surface winds. The water vapor released by the fire changes the moisture balance of the atmosphere. The water vapor can be carried away, where the latent heat stored in the vapor is released through condensation. Approaches Like all models in computational science, fire models need to strike a balance between fidelity, availability of data, and fast execution. Wildland fire models span a vast range of complexity, from simple cause and effect principles to the most physically complex presenting a difficult supercomputing challenge that cannot hope to be solved faster than real time. Forest-fire models have been developed since 1940 to the present, but a lot of chemical and thermodynamic questions related to fire behaviour are still to be resolved. Scientists and their forest fire models from 1940 till 2003 are listed in article. Models can be divided into three groups: Empirical, Semi-empirical, and Physically based. Empirical models Conceptual models from experience and intuition from past fires can be used to anticipate the future. Many semi-empirical fire spread equations, as in those published by the USDA Forest Service, Forestry Canada, Nobel, Bary, and Gill, and Cheney, Gould, and Catchpole for Australasian fuel complexes have been developed for quick estimation of fundamental parameters of interest such as fire spread rate, flame length, and fireline intensity of surface fires at a point for specific fuel complexes, assuming a representative point-location wind and terrain slope. Based on the work by Fons's in 1946, and Emmons in 1963, the quasi-steady equilibrium spread rate calculated for a surface fire on flat ground in no-wind conditions was calibrated using data of piles of sticks burned in a flame chamber/wind tunnel to represent other wind and slope conditions for the fuel complexes tested. Two-dimensional fire growth models such as FARSITE and Prometheus, the Canadian wildland fire growth model designed to work in Canadian fuel complexes, have been developed that apply such semi-empirical relationships and others regarding ground-to-crown transitions to calculate fire spread and other parameters along the surface. Certain assumptions must be made in models such as FARSITE and Prometheus to shape the fire growth. For example, Prometheus and FARSITE use the Huygens principle of wave propagation. A set of equations that can be used to propagate (shape and direction) a fire front using an elliptical shape was developed by Richards in 1990. Although more sophisticated applications use a three-dimensional numerical weather prediction system to provide inputs such as wind velocity to one of the fire growth models listed above, the input was passive and the feedback of the fire upon the atmospheric wind and humidity are not accounted for. Physically based models and coupling with the atmosphere A simplified physically based two-dimensional fire spread models based upon conservation laws that use radiation as the dominant heat transfer mechanism and convection, which represents the effect of wind and slope, lead to reaction–diffusion systems of partial differential equations. More complex physical models join computational fluid dynamics models with a wildland fire component and allow the fire to feed back upon the atmosphere. These models include NCAR's Coupled Atmosphere-Wildland Fire-Environment (CAWFE) model developed in 2005, WRF-Fire at NCAR and University of Colorado Denver which combines the Weather Research and Forecasting Model with a spread model by the level-set method, University of Utah's Coupled Atmosphere-Wildland Fire Large Eddy Simulation developed in 2009, Los Alamos National Laboratory's FIRETEC developed in, the WUI (wildland–urban interface) Fire Dynamics Simulator (WFDS) developed in 2007, and, to some degree, the two-dimensional model FIRESTAR. These tools have different emphases and have been applied to better understand the fundamental aspects of fire behavior, such as fuel inhomogeneities on fire behavior, feedbacks between the fire and the atmospheric environment as the basis for the universal fire shape, and are beginning to be applied to wildland urban interface house-to-house fire spread at the community-scale. The cost of added physical complexity is a corresponding increase in computational cost, so much so that a full three-dimensional explicit treatment of combustion in wildland fuels by direct numerical simulation (DNS) at scales relevant for atmospheric modeling does not exist, is beyond current supercomputers, and does not currently make sense to do because of the limited skill of weather models at spatial resolution under 1 km. Consequently, even these more complex models parameterize the fire in some way, for example, papers by Clark use equations developed by Rothermel for the USDA forest service to calculate local fire spread rates using fire-modified local winds. And, although FIRETEC and WFDS carry prognostic conservation equations for the reacting fuel and oxygen concentrations, the computational grid cannot be fine enough to resolve the reaction rate-limiting mixing of fuel and oxygen, so approximations must be made concerning the subgrid-scale temperature distribution or the combustion reaction rates themselves. These models also are too small-scale to interact with a weather model, so the fluid motions use a computational fluid dynamics model confined in a box much smaller than the typical wildfire. Attempts to create the most complete theoretical model were made by Albini F.A. in USA and Grishin A.M. in Russia. Grishin's work is based on the fundamental laws of physics, conservation and theoretical justifications are provided. The simplified two-dimensional model of running crown forest fire was developed in Belarusian State University by Barovik D.V. and Taranchuk V.B. Data assimilation Data assimilation periodically adjusts the model state to incorporate new data using statistical methods. Because fire is highly nonlinear and irreversible, data assimilation for fire models poses special challenges, and standard methods, such as the ensemble Kalman filter (EnKF) do not work well. Statistical variability of corrections and especially large corrections may result in nonphysical states, which tend to be preceded or accompanied by large spatial gradients. In order to ease this problem, the regularized EnKF penalizes large changes of spatial gradients in the Bayesian update in EnKF. The regularization technique has a stabilizing effect on the simulations in the ensemble but it does not improve much the ability of the EnKF to track the data: The posterior ensemble is made out of linear combinations of the prior ensemble, and if a reasonably close location and shape of the fire cannot be found between the linear combinations, the data assimilation is simply out of luck, and the ensemble cannot approach the data. From that point on, the ensemble evolves essentially without regard to the data. This is called filter divergence. So, there is clearly a need to adjust the simulation state by a position change rather than an additive correction only. The morphing EnKF combines the ideas of data assimilation with image registration and morphing to provide both additive and position correction in a natural manner, and can be used to change a model state reliably in response to data. Limitations and practical use The limitations on fire modeling are not entirely computational. At this level, the models encounter limits in knowledge about the composition of pyrolysis products and reaction pathways, in addition to gaps in basic understanding about some aspects of fire behavior such as fire spread in live fuels and surface-to-crown fire transition. Thus, while more complex models have value in studying fire behavior and testing fire spread in a range of scenarios, from the application point of view, FARSITE and Palm-based applications of BEHAVE have shown great utility as practical in-the-field tools because of their ability to provide estimates of fire behavior in real time. While the coupled fire-atmosphere models have the ability to incorporate the ability of the fire to affect its own local weather, and model many aspects of the explosive, unsteady nature of fires that cannot be incorporated in current tools, it remains a challenge to apply these more complex models in a faster-than-real-time operational environment. Also, although they have reached a certain degree of realism when simulating specific natural fires, they must yet address issues such as identifying what specific, relevant operational information they could provide beyond current tools, how the simulation time could fit the operational time frame for decisions (therefore, the simulation must run substantially faster than real time), what temporal and spatial resolution must be used by the model, and how they estimate the inherent uncertainty in numerical weather prediction in their forecast. These operational constraints must be used to steer model development. See also Catastrophe modeling Extreme value theory Fuel model References External links PROMETHEUS fire growth simulator WRF-Fire Wildfire Visualizations collected links Wildfire simulations on Youtube Wildfire visualizations at NCAR Coupled Weather-Wildfire Modeling - Basic aspects of wildfire behavior Coupled Weather-Wildfire Modeling - Wildfire Case Studies Fire research links Why are wildfires defying long-standing computer models? September 2012 Wildfire prevention Wildfire suppression Computational physics Firefighting Sustainable forest management Mathematical modeling Numerical climate and weather models Wildfire ecology

21457861

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wildfire%20Games

Wildfire Games

Wildfire Games is an independent free software video game developer, originally founded as a modding team in 2001. The logo is the Chinese character "火" (fire). Wildfire Games is currently developing 0 A.D., a real-time strategy game. In addition to game development, Wildfire Games has developed the Pyrogenesis game engine used in 0 A.D. and separate mods. History Wildfire Games began as a game modding studio for Age of Empires II. An idea for a mod, 0 A.D., became an independent game due to the limitations of Age of Empires. Awards Top 100 Best Mods and Indies of 2008 References External links Video game development companies Video game companies established in 2002

21468851

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2004%20Alaska%20wildfires

2004 Alaska wildfires

The 2004 Alaska fire season was the worst wildfire season on record in the U.S. state of Alaska in terms of area burned. Though the 1989 fire season recorded more fires, nearly 1,000, the 2004 season burned more than 6,600,000 acres (10,300 sq mi; 27,000 km2) in just 701 fires. The largest of these fires was the Taylor Complex Fire. This fire consumed over and was the deemed to be the largest fire in the United States from at least 1997 to 2019. Out of all 701 fires, 426 fires were started by humans and 215 by lightning. Causes of the fires Beginning in May 2004, the summer was extremely warm and wet in comparison to typical Interior Alaska summer climate. Much of the rain over the summer of 2004 came during thunderstorms, which resulted in record amounts of lightning triggering many of the original fires near Fairbanks, Alaska. Wildfires are prone to develop in areas with frequent lightning strikes. After months of lightning and increased temperatures, an uncharacteristically dry August resulted in fires continuing through September. Impacts on climate change and landscape Alaska has a climate that of the boreal zone, more commonly known as taiga. The boreal zone, across the globe, makes up more than 25% of global forests, and when wildfires occur it is a top leader in carbon emissions. Approximately 12% of the world's carbon is stored in top layer soil and this part is the first to burn in any wildfire. These emissions have some of the greatest impacts on natural carbon balance, and Alaska gives its fair contribution. Typically Alaskan forest fires make up 41% of the United States' carbon emissions from wildland fires, but more recently with warming conditions and more wildfire occurrences these figures have gone all the way to 89%. Landscape is also changing as a result of wildfires. Less canopy is provided in the aftermath of a wildfire, hence soil temperatures may rise, rendering the area uninhabitable by certain species and allow new, non-native species to thrive. When soil temperatures rise, permafrost is also revealed and begins to melt away, which can lead to landslides and erosion. Impacts on air quality The 2004 fire season of Alaska had large impacts on the air quality and safety of nearby populations. These impacts most significant in Fairbanks, Alaska. For over 15 days, particulate matter measured 1,000 micrograms per cubic meter, well over the EPA thresholds for hazardous and unhealthy air quality. To put it into perspective, an area deemed to be unhealthy typically has 65 micrograms of smoke particulate per cubic meter, while an area deemed to be hazardous has anymore than 250 micrograms per cubic meter. Normal levels in Fairbanks, Alaska are typically 10 micrograms per cubic meter. The main issue with smoke particulate is not the smoke itself but the matter that is mixed in. Wildfire smoke is usually made up of acids, chemicals, metals, soil/dust, and pollen/mold spores. External links The U.S. Wildlife and Fisheries outlines potential dangers of the new wildfire fuels that are populating Alaska. The University of Alaska Fairbanks shows graphical data pertaining to the amount of land burned and past wildfires in Alaska. References https://www.nifc.gov/fireInfo/fireInfo_stats_lgFires.html 2004 wildfires in the United States Wildfires in Alaska 2004 in Alaska

21912100

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evans%20Road%20Wildfire

Evans Road Wildfire

The Evans Road Wildfire was a smoldering peat fire in Eastern North Carolina that started on June 1, 2008 by lightning strike during North Carolina's drought - the worst on record. It burned inside the Pocosin Lakes National Wildlife Refuge and burned for three months. The wildlife refuge is located in the Albemarle-Pamlico Peninsula, where many forest fires are prone to start because of several ecological factors. The area is densely populated by trees, which makes it easy for fires to spread quickly; a layer of shrubs and dead plant material on the ground serve as fuel for fires. Under this layer, the pocosin soil is high in organic material, which acts as a charcoal-like substance that helps fires start. 450 firefighters battled it. 71 high capacity pumps moved billions of gallons of water. References External links of the peat fire 2008 wildfires in the United States Fires in North Carolina Natural disasters in North Carolina 2008 in North Carolina June 2008 events in the United States

23424510

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Woodill%20Wildfire

Woodill Wildfire

The Woodill Wildfire was an American sports car built by Dodge and Willys dealer Blanchard Robert "Woody" Woodill from 1952 to 1958 in Downey, California. The Wildfire used a Glasspar fiberglass body and is credited with being the first complete fiberglass car available with approximately 15 produced and another 285 sold as kits. A child's version of the vehicle called the Brushfire was also available. In September 2012 a Woodill Wildfire was featured on the Discovery Channel TV show Fast N' Loud. According to the show, theirs was one of only nine factory-built Wildfires still known to exist. The show's host sold the car to a collector for $100,500. Payment for the car consisted of ten $10,000 stacks of $100 bills and a 1934 $500 bill, the latter of which in itself is worth more than its face value. See also References External links Woodill Wildfire History of the Woodill Wildfire by Frederick J. Roth Sports cars Defunct motor vehicle manufacturers of the United States

23564464

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20wildfire%20suppression%20in%20the%20United%20States

History of wildfire suppression in the United States

Wildfire suppression in the United States has had a long and varied history. For most of the 20th century, any form of wildland fire, whether it was naturally caused or otherwise, was quickly suppressed for fear of uncontrollable and destructive conflagrations such as the Peshtigo Fire in 1871 and the Great Fire of 1910. In the 1960s, policies governing wildfire suppression changed due to ecological studies that recognized fire as a natural process necessary for new growth. Today, policies advocating complete fire suppression have been exchanged for those who encourage wildland fire use, or the allowing of fire to act as a tool, such as the case with controlled burns. Fire Suppression and Settler Colonialism Native American use of fire in ecosystems are part of the environmental cycles and maintenance of wildlife habitats that sustain the cultures and economies of the Indigenous peoples of the Americas. Indigenous peoples have used burning practices to manage, protect, and relate to their surrounds since time immemorial. According to sociologist Kari Norgaard: "Indigenous peoples have long set low-intensity fires to manage eco-cultural resources and reduce the buildup of fuels – flammable trees, grasses and brush – that cause larger, hotter and more dangerous fires, like the ones that have burned across the West in recent years. Before fire suppression, forests in the West experienced a mix of low- to high-severity fires for millennia. Large, high-severity fires played an important ecological role, yet their spread was limited by low-severity fires set by indigenous peoples" However, "Fire suppression was mandated by the very first session of the California Legislature in 1850," and with the institution of the Weeks Act in 1911, "cultural uses of fire" were essentially made "illegal and for the many decades following, less and less burning occurred while more and more vegetation grew. Over a century of policies of fire suppression have created the conditions for the catastrophic, high-intensity wildfires we are seeing today" according to the Karuk Tribe of Northern California's Climate Adaptation Plan. Because many Indigenous groups viewed fire as a tool for ecosystem management, education, and a way of life, such suppression would lead to decreased food availability and breakdown of social and familial structures. It has been argued by numerous scholars that such suppression should be seen as a form of "Colonial Ecological Violence," "which results in particular risks and harms experienced by Native peoples and communities." Eventually, without small-scale managerial fires set by Indigenous peoples, wildfires would grow in size and severity because of buildup of vegetation on the forest floor in combination with Climate change. As the U.S. Forest Service and environmental scientists come to understand the long-term damage that such suppression has done, Indigenous peoples have provided the Forest Service a better understanding of how traditional burning practices are necessary for forests and people. 19th century and early firefighting In the eastern United States, with its significant rainfall, wildfires are relatively small and have rarely posed great risk to life and property. As settlements moved further west into drier areas, the first large scale fires were encountered. Range fires on the Great Plains and forest fires in the Rocky Mountains were far larger and more destructive than what had ever been seen in the east. Yellowstone National Park was established in 1872 as the world's first national park. For the next several years, administration of the park languished until 1886 when the U. S. Army was assigned the responsibility for its protection. Upon its arrival in the park, the Army found numerous fires burning in developed areas as well as in areas where it was not reasonable to control them. The commanding officer decided that human-caused fires along roads posed the biggest threat and that the Army would concentrate its suppression efforts on the control of those fires. There were not enough soldiers to fight all of the fires. Thus, came the first conscious decision by a manager of federal land to allow some fires to burn while others were controlled. The policy of fire suppression was also applied to Sequoia, General Grant, and Yosemite national parks when they were established in 1890, and Army patrols were initiated to guard against fires, livestock trespass, and illegal logging. A number of catastrophic fire events over the years greatly influenced fire management policies. The worst loss of life in United States history due to a wildfire occurred in 1871 when the Peshtigo Fire swept through Wisconsin, killing more than 1500 people. The Santiago Canyon Fire of 1889 in California and especially the Great Fire of 1910 in Montana and Idaho contributed to the philosophy that fire was a danger that needed to be suppressed. The Great Fire of 1910 had burned , destroyed a number of communities and killed 86 people, and this event prompted various land management agencies to emphasize wildfire suppression. U.S. Government land agencies, including the National Park Service, generally followed the fire management policies established by the U.S. Forest Service, which oversees the majority of the nation's forestlands. (See "The Big Burn" a 2014 PBS documentary American Experience (season 27)). This would lead to the passage of the 1911 Weeks Act. Suppression as a rule Before the middle of the 20th century, most forest managers believed that fires should be suppressed at all times. By 1935, the U.S. Forest Service's fire management policy stipulated that all wildfires were to be suppressed by 10 am the morning after they were first spotted. Fire fighting crews were established throughout public lands, and generally staffed by young men during fire seasons. By 1940, firefighters known as smokejumpers would parachute out of airplanes to extinguish flames in remote locations. By the beginning of World War II, over 8,000 fire lookout towers had been constructed in the United States. Though many have been torn down due to increased use of airplanes for fire spotting, three are still used each year in Yellowstone. Firefighting efforts were highly successful, with the area burned by wildfires reduced from an annual average of during the 1930s, to between and by the 1960s. The need for lumber during World War II was high and fires that destroyed timberland were deemed unacceptable. In 1944, the U.S. Forest Service developed an ad campaign to help educate the public that all fires were detrimental, using a cartoon black bear named Smokey Bear. This iconic firefighting bear can still be seen on posters with the catchphrase "Only you can prevent wildfires". Early posters of Smokey Bear misled the public into believing that western wildfires were predominantly human-caused. In Yellowstone, human-caused fires average between 6 and 10 annually, while 35 wildfires are ignited by lightning. Some researchers, as well as some timber companies and private citizens, understood that fire was a natural state of affairs in many ecosystems. Fire would help clean out the understory and dead plant matter, allowing economically important tree species to grow with less competition for nutrients. Native Americans would often burn woodlands to reduce overgrowth and increase grasslands for large prey animals such as bison and elk. When the U.S. Forest Service was established in 1905, it became the primary task of the Forest Service to suppress all fires on the forest reserves it administered. In 1916, the National Park Service was established and took over park management from the Army. Following the Forest Service approach, fire suppression became the only fire policy and remained in the national parks for the next five decades. Some foresters questioned the economic logic of such suppression efforts. However, the extensive fires of 1910 solidified the Forest Service as the premier fire control organization and fire suppression remained the only fire policy for all federal land management agencies until the late 1960s. Complete fire suppression was the objective, even though these early efforts were less than successful until the advent of vehicles, equipment, and roads (see Fire trail) during the 1940s. As early as 1924, environmentalist Aldo Leopold argued that wildfires were beneficial to ecosystems, and were necessary for the natural propagation of numerous tree and plant species. Over the next 40 years, increasing numbers of foresters and ecologists concurred about the benefits of wildfire to ecosystems. Some managers allowed low intensity fires to spread in remote areas unless they threatened valuable resources or facilities, but by 1934 a policy of extinguishing all fires by 10:00 am of the next burning period was implemented. This resulted in the buildup of fuels in some ecosystems such as ponderosa pine and Douglas fir forests. Changes to policy The policy began to be questioned in the 1960s, when it was realized that no new giant sequoia had grown in the forests of California, because fire is an essential part of their life cycle. In 1962, Secretary of the Interior Stewart Udall assembled a Special Advisory Board on Wildlife Management to look into wildlife management problems in the national parks. This Advisory Board wrote what is now referred to as the Leopold Report, named after its chair, zoologist and conservationist A. Starker Leopold, which did not confine its report to wildlife, but took the broader ecological view that parks should be managed as ecosystems. The passage of the 1964 Wilderness Act encouraged the allowance of natural processes to occur, including fire. Afterwards, the National Park Service changed its policy in 1968 to recognize fire as an ecological process. Fires were to be allowed to run their courses as long as they could be contained within fire management units and accomplished approved management objectives. Several parks established fire use programs, and policies were gradually changed from fire control to fire management. The Forest Service enacted similar measures in 1974 by changing its policy from fire control to fire management, allowing lightning fires to burn in wilderness areas. This included both naturally caused fire and intentional prescribed fire. In 1978, the Forest Service abandoned the 10:00 am policy in favor of a new policy that encouraged the use of wildland fire by prescription. Three events between 1978 and 1988 precipitated a major fire use policy review in 1989: the Ouzel Fire in Rocky Mountain National Park, the Yellowstone fires of 1988 in and around Yellowstone National Park, and the Canyon Creek fire in the Bob Marshall Wilderness on the Lewis and Clark National Forest. In all three cases, monitored fires burned until they threatened developed areas. While none of the Yellowstone fires of 1988 were caused by controlled burns, later investigations proved the fire use policy was appropriate, though needing strengthening and improvement. The Secretaries of Agriculture and the Interior convened a fire policy review team to evaluate the National Park Service and Forest Service wilderness fire policies. The team reaffirmed the fundamental importance of fire’s natural role but recommended that fire management plans be strengthened by establishing clear decision criteria and accountability, and that interagency cooperation be improved. Wildland fire use programs restarted slowly after the 1989 review. Eventually the Forest Service and National Park Service programs began to grow as the number of fires and area burned increased. 21st Century Suppressive action taken during the South Canyon Fire, which was ignited by lightning in a fire exclusion zone on July 2, 1994, caused controversy after a blow-up killed 14 firefighters two days after the initial blaze. An interagency team was formed and issued their report in August. They cited several direct and contributory causes of the fatalities including fire behavior, personnel profiles, and incident management procedures. The South Canyon incident led to the first comprehensive review and update of federal wildland fire policy in decades. The report reiterated that the first priority of all federal wildland fire programs was firefighter and public safety. With regard to prescribed fires and prescribed natural fires, the report stated that, "Wildland fire will be used to protect, maintain, and enhance resources and, as nearly as possible, be allowed to function in its natural ecological role." In 1998, a new procedures guide used the term "wildland fire use" to describe what had previously been prescribed natural fires. By the end of the decade, a 1995 policy had reinvigorated “wildland fire use” programs and given managers the support they needed to enable the programs to continue to grow and mature. Fire management benefits began to appear, such as the 2000 Hash Rock fire which burned almost all of the Mill Creek Wilderness on the Ochoco National Forest in Oregon before it was suppressed. When the wildfire reached the 1996 Mill Creek fire, which had been managed under the wildland fire use program, it went out. Use of fire presently varies in various federal agencies, partially due to differing influences such as land proximity to urban areas. In response to growing threats of fire in California, Jackie Fielder, an indigenous organizer and politician, proposed the creation of an indigenous wildfire task force as a part of her 2020 state senate campaign. The plan draws on ideas behind the Karuk tribeś work around cultural burning and climate adaptation, and would create a path for more cultural burning to take place. Bill Tripp, working directly with policy for the Karuk tribe, has noted more education and growing awareness of indigenous practices can lead to promising alternatives to modern-day fire suppression. The Karuk tribe have been a leader in restoring and expanding cultural burning in the American West, carrying out cultural burns in order to reduce wildfire risk and promote the growth of culturally important flora. Fielders proposal aims to reduce the threat of wildfire, as well as return more oversight of land management to indigenous people. It also has the potential to provide more job opportunities to indigenous and rural Californians. Fielder's campaign gained traction at least in part due to bold proposals like this. Scott Wiener, Fielder's opponent and current California State Senator for District 11, has stated that he is interested in supporting a task force similar to the one which Fielder proposed. This would represent a divergence from the incumbent's past approach, as Wiener's approach to wildfire management in the past has largely focused on shifting new construction away from the wildland urban interface. See also Smokejumpers Hotshot Crew Helitack References Further reading Egan, Timothy (September 7, 2010). "The Big Burn: Teddy Roosevelt and the Fire that Saved America". Mariner Books. . External links Fire and the U.S. Forest Service (Forest History Society USFS History Pages) Wildfire suppression Wildfire ecology

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wildfire%20suppression%20equipment%20and%20personnel

Wildfire suppression equipment and personnel

Wildfire suppression equipment and personnel is part of the science of fire fighting focusing on the use of specialized equipment, training and tactics to effectively control, surround and eventually extinguish a natural cover fire. There are several specially designed tools that through their function and user training, perform specialized tasks that are specific to natural cover firefighting. This is used together in conjunction with the general understanding of the behavior of fire to form a viable plan of attack. Personnel PPE or personal protective equipment is generally standardized for a certain type of team or crew. Smokejumpers for example require more protective equipment because of their method of delivery into the fire. Ordinarily, all firefighters regardless of assignment, require durable fire recommended eight inch (203 mm) minimum boots, gloves, Nomex pants and shirt (typically green pants and a yellow shirt), a hard hat (sometimes full brim), Walkie-talkie, potable water, eye protection (goggles) and a fire shelter. In the U.S., a firefighter's credentials and level of training is shown on their red card. For example, a sawyer will have a feller rating on their red card designating the capacity size tree they have been trained to fell. A firefighter trained as an EMT may have this certification on their card. Classes under the National Wildfire Coordinating Group (NWCG) and management qualification standards under the Interagency Fire Program Management (IFPM) are generally shown as well. At a minimum, the passing of the pack test is displayed showing the individual is physically able to perform appropriate duties. There are currently 2 wildland firefighter ratings. Firefighter Type 2, which is the basic firefighter qualification, and is required for most operational positions. The Firefighter Type 2 requires several introductory classes as well as a practical day in the field. The dispatch code for a Firefighter Type 2 is FFT2. The second rating is Firefighter Type 1. The Firefighter 1 rating requires advanced courses in wildland firefighting as well as acceptable performance as a FFT2. Firefighter Type 1 is considered to be a senior and seasoned wildland Firefighter. The dispatch code for Firefighter Type 1 is FFT1. Hand crews Typically, wildland firefighting organizations will use large handcrews of 20 or more people who travel in vehicles to the fire incident. Although these crews can vary above or below 20 firefighters, they are generally called twenty-man crews. The designations of these crews in the U.S., defined in large portion by training, are as follows: Some personnel are organized into fast attack teams typically consisting of five to eight personnel. Similar to the larger crews, they travel by vehicle. Smokejumpers Smokejumpers are highly skilled firefighters specially trained in wildfire suppression tactics. They parachute into remote areas from aircraft to combat wildfires and are equipped to work in remote areas for extended periods of time with little logistical support. Helitack The use of helicopter-delivered fire resources varies by agency. Often, helitack crews perform duties similar to other initial attack crews. Two or three firefighters will be dispatched to a newly reported fire. Helitack crews are usually used for initial attack on fires that are difficult for other firefighters to access, or on extended fires that require aerial support in the form of water drops, cargo delivery, crew shuttling, or reconnaissance. A typical initial attack response by a helitack crew involves flying to the fire via helicopter and spending one to three days (although sometimes much longer) putting the fire out before hiking to the nearest road for pickup. Rappellers A highly effective way to fight wilderness fire when no roads are nearby is to have wildland firefighters rappel from a helicopter. These firefighters then take suppressive action on the fire or clear a safe landing zone to receive additional firefighters if the fire is too large. Rappellers usually carry 30 pounds of personal gear plus up to 300 pounds of fire gear which is lowered down to them from their helicopter. Rappelling heights can range from 30 feet (in tall, continuous brush) to 250 feet (in timber). When suppression is complete on rappel fires, ground transport is typically arranged to pick up the firefighters at the nearest road. These crews carry chainsaws, hand tools, radios, and can even have water bags, known as blivets, flown in to help fight the fire. When not rappelling, the crew works as a helitack crew and can fly or hike to any regular fire. Vehicles Engines Wildland fire engine Crew transport Buggy or crummy Crew bus Tenders When water is required to refill a fire engine, water delivery is vital. The typical water tender carries of water to support fire engines. In addition to supplying fire engines directly, tenders may fill water reservoirs for bucket-dropping helicopters when a lake or reservoir is not nearby. Heavy equipment Heavy equipment's primary function of wildfire suppression is through the application of heavy construction style equipment to move large amounts or earth or remove vegetation. Fuel breaks, safety zones, firelines and access to areas that maybe previously were inaccessible may be made. Bulldozers and tractor plows are examples. Air suppression In addition to aircraft being used for deploying ground personnel, firefighting groups may utilize helicopters and fixed-wing airplanes specially equipped for use in aerial firefighting to douse areas that are inaccessible to vehicles with water and/or flame retardant chemicals. Fixed-wing airplanes Airtankers Lead aircraft Smokejumper transport aircraft Airlift aircraft Rotary-wing aircraft Helicopters (helitack & rappel) Helicopter (water delivery) Hand tools A number of tools are used in wildland firefighting. Some examples include: See also Glossary of wildfire terms Wildland Firefighter Foundation International Association of Wildland Fire Wildfire suppression References External links Survival zone minimum size Wildfire suppression

23668742

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shanta%20Creek%20Wildfire

Shanta Creek Wildfire

The Shanta Creek Wildfire was a lightning caused forest fire that started on June 29, 2009 in the Kenai National Wildlife Refuge on the Kenai Peninsula of Alaska. More than were burned and over 400 personnel were involved in the firefighting effort. Background During the late 1990s, the Kenai Peninsula was infested by spruce bark beetles. Many thousands of acres of spruce trees died as a result. Although the dead trees had subsequently been mostly removed from populated areas, there were still significant stands of dead trees in wilderness areas. Southcentral Alaska had been experiencing an unusually warm, dry summer that contributed to optimal conditions for a fire. Initially, firefighting efforts were not made due to the fire being naturally caused and located in a wilderness area that had been designated a "limited fire suppression area." Black spruce forests have a life cycle of about 70 years, while white spruce have a cycle of 100 years or more. The initial fire area had not burned since 1871, and therefore the burn was seen as natural and beneficial. The fire was monitored by the US Fish and Wildlife Service, which manages the refuge, and was allowed to grow unchecked to over . Firefighting efforts On July 9, the fire grew to over and began moving towards lightly populated areas outside of Kasilof and Soldotna. More resources were ordered to protect these areas. By June 11, over 400 persons were fighting the fire, and hotshot crews and bulldozers were utilized to create fire breaks. Air tankers and helicopters were also used to dump water and fire retardant near homes threatened by the fire. A temporary "tent city" was established at Skyview High School to house firefighters and support staff, and a no fly zone was established around the fire area. Smoke from the fire and others blazing simultaneously in Interior Alaska contributed to a visible haze of smoke over Anchorage and much of south-central Alaska. Fire managers began to take crews off the fire and reassign them after light but sustained rain fell on the fire for several days starting on July 18. By July 21, the fire had stopped expanding, and around 200 staff remained at the fire to monitor and conduct mop-up operations of remaining hot spots near populated areas. Aftermath On July 21, the fire was declared to be contained, and command and control were returned to the Refuge by federal fire managers. The total area burned at that time was . The overall cost of the firefighting effort was estimated at six million dollars. There were no deaths and no residences were burned. See also Mile 17 fire 2007 Caribou Hills fire Funny River Fire Swan Lake fire References Official press releases from Fish and Wildlife Service External links Official Kenai National Wildlife Refuge updates on the fire Map of the fire area (PDF format) 2009 in Alaska 2009 wildfires in the United States Kenai Peninsula Borough, Alaska Wildfires on the Kenai Peninsula Fires in Alaska

23743079

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2009%20Mediterranean%20wildfires

2009 Mediterranean wildfires

The 2009 Mediterranean wildfires were a series of wildfires that broke out across France, Greece, Italy, Spain, and Turkey in July 2009. Strong winds spread the fire during a hot, dry period of weather killing at least eight people, six of whom were in Spain. Some of the wildfires were caused by lightning, along with arson and military training. Effects Four Spanish firefighters died in Catalonia on 21 July, and a fifth member died later from injuries on 23 July, as well as a fire engine driver in Teruel. A further two people died from bush fires in Sardinia. More than 120 people were rescued at Capo Pecora on Sardinia by helicopter and civil protection boats. The Arenas prison complex was evacuated and the inmates were temporarily transferred to the beach. Northern and central Spain saw temperatures of around on 21 July. Around 2,000 people were evacuated from hills around the town of Collado Mediano, near Madrid. Aircraft with water and firefighters controlled the fire. Estimates suggest that 5,000 hectares of forest and bush were affected in the Sierra Cabrera mountain range between Turre and Mojácar in Spain on 14–15 July. 500 people were evacuated, as dozens of firefighters and soldiers controlled the fires, including the use of five helicopters and three aircraft. On 23 July, the fires on the Sierra Cabrera on which Mojácar sits flared again, causing damage to the village and other houses in the area and the evacuation of around 1,500 residents. Outside the French city of Marseille, 1,300 hectares (3211 acres) were destroyed. In Corsica, wildfires led to the destruction of approximately 4,000 hectares (10,000 acres) of bush and forest resulting in the injuries of five firemen. More than 320 wildfires affected patches of forest across Greece, although they did affect buildings. Most of them were located on the island of Euboea and the southern Peloponnese. On 23 July, over 15 hectares of land were destroyed in a landfill site in Bodrum, southwestern Turkey. Over 200 volunteers and 100 firefighters tried to contain the fires across Turkey, which saw temperatures of on 25–26 July. Causes In the Mediterranean region, the current fire frequency due to human activity is considered much larger than the natural rate. 95% of forest fires in Spain are human-induced. The 2009 Mediterranean wildfires occurred during a particularly hot and dry summer period, increasing the risk of wildfires burning out of control once ignited. Temperatures peaked at in mainland Spain and reached in Gran Canaria. These conditions, combined with insufficient fire-fighting resources and an inadequate official response in some of the affected countries, exacerbated the extent of the damage. Uncontrolled legal and illegal scrub burning by farmers is a major cause of forest fires in the Mediterranean region. Arson, while still a significant factor, has diminished in Spain and Greece in recent years. Decreasing property values generally and the introduction of legislation in Spain to tackle the issue has diminished the financial incentive to illegally clear forested land for development by burning. Isolated cases of areas in Spain affected by fires caused by lightning strikes include Aragon (Spain), as reported by El Pais and Mojácar, as suggested by the Spanish Forest Fire Organisation (INFOCA). The wildfires outside of Marseille, France, were reported as being caused by military training using tracer bullets. The local government of Corsica believed the fires were caused by arson. References See also 2009 Greek forest fires Wildfires caused by arson Arson in Europe Mass murder in 2009 Mediterranean Wildfires, 2009 July 2009 crimes July 2009 events in Europe 2009 in France Fires in France Natural disasters in France Wildfires in Europe 2009 in Greece 2009 in Italy Fires in Italy Natural disasters in Italy 2009 in Spain Wildfires in Spain 2009 in Turkey Fires in Turkey Natural disasters in Turkey Wildfires in Asia Mediterranean 2009 disasters in Europe

24170568

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2009%20California%20wildfires

2009 California wildfires

The 2009 California wildfires were a series of 9,159 wildfires that were active in the US state of California, during the year 2009. The fires burned more than of land from early February through late November, due to Red Flag conditions, destroying hundreds of structures, injuring 134 people, and killing four. The wildfires also caused at least US$134.48 million in damage. Although the fires burned many different regions of California in August, the month was especially notable for several very large fires which burned in Southern California, despite being outside of the normal fire season for that region. The Station Fire, north of Los Angeles, was the largest and deadliest of these wildfires. It began in late August, and resulted in the devastation of of land as well as the death of two firefighters. Another large fire was the La Brea Fire, which burned nearly in Santa Barbara County earlier in the month. A state of emergency was also declared for the Lockheed Fire in Santa Cruz County, to the north. Fires Below is a list of all fires that exceeded during the 2009 fire season. The list is taken from CAL FIRE's list of large fires. Weather conditions Invasive, non-native vegetation dies and re-sprouts year after year creating an unnatural buildup of dead plant material. While periodic fires are natural, and many native plants depend upon fire to reproduce; the intensity and frequency of these fires is altered by the presence of non-natives. In Southern California, the normal wildfire season begins in October, with the arrival of the infamous Santa Ana winds, and it is unusual to see fires spread so rapidly during other times of year. However, temperatures throughout the southern part of the state exceeded 100 °F (38 °C) for much of late August. The combination of high temperatures, low humidity and a large quantity of tinder-dry fuel, some of which had not burnt for decades, allowed some of the normal fires to quickly explode out of control despite the lack of winds to spread the flames. These conditions, along with extreme terrain in many undeveloped areas that slowed access to burn areas, made firefighting difficult. Notable fires Dozens of fires burned throughout California in August 2009. Some of the most notable are listed here. Northern California Alameda County The Corral Fire began on August 13 along Corral Hollow Road, outside the Carnegie State Vehicular Recreation Area, near Tracy in Alameda County. It burned of dry grass before being fully contained on August 16. Mariposa County The Big Meadow Fire began on August 26 in Big Meadow, two miles (3 km) east of El Portal, just inside Yosemite National Park. As of September 4, this fire has burned in the Mariposa County section of Yosemite, resulting in the closure of several trails, campgrounds and the portion of State Highway 120 known as Tioga Road. The community of Foresta was evacuated but residents were allowed to return on September 4. The Big Meadow Fire is 96% contained as of September 6, with full containment expected by September 10. This blaze was the result of a prescribed burn gone out of control, leading some to question the judgment of Park authorities. Placer County The Mammoth Fire started on July 16 and burned in the American River Canyon and Mammoth Bar Recreation Area east of Auburn before it was contained on July 18. The fire closed the Foresthill Bridge, the highest bridge in California, for 2 days. It took 358 firefighters, 24 engines, and a helicopter to put out. The cause was undetermined as of July 18, 2009. The Foresthill Fire started on August 27 and burned along the American River Canyon near the Foresthill Bridge before it was contained on August 28. This fire is close to the location of the Mammoth Fire. The fire took over 100 firefighters, 10 engines, 3 airtankers (planes), and 2 helicopters to extinguish. The cause was undetermined as of August 28, 2009. The 49 Fire was a small but very destructive fire that began on August 30 and was fully contained by CalFire on September 1. Although it burned only , it destroyed 63 homes and 3 commercial structures in the unincorporated area of North Auburn in Placer County. The fire extensively damaged 3 more homes and 6 more businesses. The fire began along the east side of Highway 49, which led to the name 49 Fire. The fire quickly spread north and east. The fire spread so quickly that some residents barely escaped their burning homes. Auburn Municipal Airport was closed during the fire, which burned right up to the runway. The fire's cause is arson. The arsonist lit a second fire just east of the original fire 20 minutes after the first fire. This added to the destruction and fire spread. This was the second fire to burn the area in 5 years. Santa Cruz/Monterey/San Benito Counties The Lockheed Fire began on August 12 near the Lockheed Martin Space Systems campus in Santa Cruz County. A total of burned and thirteen structures were destroyed, including four seasonal cabins but no primary residences. No cause has been identified. The communities of Swanton and Bonny Doon were evacuated and a state of emergency was declared by Lieutenant Governor John Garamendi on August 14. State fire crews achieved 100% containment on August 23, at a cost of . Many hillsides burned by the Lockheed Fire had not burned since 1948 due to active fire suppression in the area. Some plant species endemic to the area, including the endangered Santa Cruz manzanita, propagate only after fire, potentially allowing these rare species to proliferate for the first time in decades. The Bryson Fire started from a mobile home fire on Bryson-Hesperia Road in the Monterey County town of Lockwood. It burned and five structures, including three homes, between August 26 and August 28. The Gloria Fire began on August 27 along Camphora Gloria Road near the town of Soledad. It burned in Monterey and San Benito counties, destroying a house and another structure before CalFire contained it on August 31 at a cost of US$4 million. The fire was set off by fireworks used to scare away birds outside of a winery and a criminal investigation is underway to determine who is responsible. The Loma Fire (October 25–27), (initially reported as 600 acres) began near Loma Prieta Way in Santa Clara County and spread to the Santa Cruz County area of Maymens Flat – Highland Road, Eureka Canyon and Ormsby. One residence destroyed with 160 structures threatened and evacuations in place for north Ormsby Cutoff until October 26. 1,742 firefighters with 4 injuries reported; cost $2.7 million. High winds contributed to the spread in the Summit area of the Santa Cruz Mountains in an area which had of rain on October 13. Yuba County The Yuba Fire was started after a red-tailed hawk flew into a power line on August 14, and burned before being contained on August 21 at a cost of US$12.1 million. Two residences in Yuba County burned and power lines transporting electricity from a hydroelectric facility were threatened. Southern California Los Angeles County The Morris Fire (August 25 – September 3, ) began near Morris Dam in the Angeles National Forest. This fire is thought to have been caused by arson. The Station Fire (August 26 – October 16, , 209 structures destroyed, including 89 homes) started in the Angeles National Forest near the U.S. Forest Service ranger station on the Angeles Crest Highway (State Highway 2). Two firefighters, Captain Tedmund Hall and Firefighter Specialist Arnie Quinones were killed on August 30 while attempting to escape the flames when their fire truck plunged off a cliff. San Bernardino County The Sheep Fire (October 3–10, ) started near Sheep Canyon Road near Lytle Creek east of Mount Baldy and west of the Cajon Pass in the San Gabriel Mountains. Mandatory evacuations were in place for all Wrightwood residents October 4–6; the fireline held at from Wrightwood homes. Five structures had been destroyed in the Lone Pine and Swarthout Canyon areas including one residence. Eight firefighters have been injured but no fatalities have been reported. Below-freezing temperatures in the mountain areas helped fire crews in containment on October 6. Suppression costs : $7,977,000. Santa Barbara County The Jesusita Fire was a wildfire that began at approximately 1:45 PM on May 5, 2009, in the hills of Santa Barbara, California. The fire burned , destroyed 80 homes and damaged 15 more before being 100% contained. The La Brea Fire began near La Brea Creek in Santa Barbara County, inside of Los Padres National Forest. The fire burned of chaparral between August 8 and August 22, but only destroyed two structures—a cabin and an unused ranger station. Ventura County The Guiberson Fire in Ventura County has burnt an estimated , destroying two outbuildings and injuring two firefighters. Governor Schwarzenegger declared a state of emergency. The fire, which started between Fillmore and Moorpark, has caused the evacuation of almost 600 homes in Meridian Hills and Bardsdale; about 1,000 structures were threatened, in addition to oil pipelines in the area. On September 27, the Guiberson Fire was 100% contained, after burning approximately . The cause of the fire is still unknown. References External links Current Fire Information . CAL FIRE (California Department of Forestry and Fire Protection) California fires, August 31, 2009. NOAA satellite image of Angeles National Forest (Station Fire), Big Meadow fire (northern California), and Mill Flat fire (Utah). Retrieved August 31, 2009. Higher res image 1280 x 1024 West coast wildfire smoke covering US Plains and Great Lakes states, 9/3/2009. NOAA satellite image. Retrieved September 7, 2009. Higher res image 1280 x 1024 California, 2009 Wildfires in California by year

26289828

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wildfire%20%281945%20film%29

Wildfire (1945 film)

Wildfire, also known as Wildfire: The Story of a Horse in the United Kingdom, is a 1945 American Cinecolor Western film directed by Robert Emmett Tansey and starring Bob Steele. It was an early film production from Robert L. Lippert. Cast Bob Steele as "Happy" Haye Sterling Holloway as "Alkali" Jones John Miljan as Pete Fanning Eddie Dean as Sheriff Johnny Deal Virginia Maples as Judy Gordon Sarah Padden as Aunt Agatha Gene Alsace as Henchman Buck Perry Francis Ford as Ezra Mills William Farnum as Judge Polson William 'Wee Willie' Davis as Henchman Moose Harris Soundtrack Eddie Dean – "On the Banks of the Sunny San Juan" (Written by Glenn Strange and Eddie Dean) Eddie Dean – "By the Sleepy Rio Grande" References External links 1945 films 1940s English-language films 1945 Western (genre) films Films about horses Cinecolor films American Western (genre) films Lippert Pictures films Films directed by Robert Emmett Tansey 1940s American films

26467522

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2010%20Guangxi%20Wildfire

2010 Guangxi Wildfire

The 2010 Guangxi Wildfire occurred in western Guangxi, China during that year's spring season. Background On Thursday, March 3, 2010, a wildfire ignited in the mountainous county of Longlin in Guangxi, China. Drought had already begun to impact the area previously, and the dry weather and lack of water contributed to the fire's success. The wildfire burned large volumes of forests and brush until it was finally put out six days and twenty-two hours later. Effects According to Longlin County's fire control headquarters, a day after its ignition the fire had already burned 1,400 Mu (or about 93 hectares or 229 acres) of forestland, with a front spanning 5.3 kilometers. The fire was also heading towards the Zhongshan National Nature Reserve, where over two hundred of the endangered black-necked pheasant lived and were at risk of being affected by the traveling flames. Along with the area's locals, over one hundred firefighters and a Mi-26 helicopter were employed to suppress the fire. After the fire was suppressed, the drought continued to worsen in the southern China region, especially in Guangxi. Two months after the fire, torrential rain caused flash floods and landslides in the same area. References Wildfires in China 2010 disasters in China 2010 wildfires March 2010 events in China

27447482

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HTC%20Wildfire

HTC Wildfire

The HTC Wildfire (also known as HTC Buzz) is a smartphone developed by the HTC Corporation, that was announced on 17 May 2010 and released in Europe in June of the same year. It is powered by a 528 MHz Qualcomm processor and runs the Android operating system, version 2.2. It includes a TFT LCD capacitive touchscreen and a 5-megapixel camera. It has been described as a "Mini HTC Desire", and is perceived to be a follow-up model to the previous year's Tattoo. The CDMA version of HTC Wildfire (also known as HTC Bee) was released in 29 October 2010, replacing GSM and HSPA with CDMA and EVDO connection technologies. It is bigger than the GSM version and the display has 256,000 colors. Availability It was being available via various mobile network operators in Europe, including the UK and Ireland. In Australia, the carrier announced was Telstra. The Telstra branded HTC Wildfire is a special version supporting 850 MHz/2100 MHz UMTS, with the model number A3335. In Taiwan, the carrier announced was Taiwan Mobile. In Malaysia, the carrier announced was Maxis. In Mexico, the carrier announced was Iusacell; however, it was incorrectly marked as the HTC Desire A. It was being available in Russia from 22 July 2010. In Turkey, availability is uncertain. Name The name "Wildfire" was decided in a poll on Facebook, which resulted in 50% of the votes for "Wildfire" and 24% for "Zeal" which came in second place. Wildfire S The HTC Wildfire S is a refresh version released a year later in 2011, which features many enhancements, including a screen with double the resolution of the Wildfire and RAM increased from 384 to 512 MB. Wildfire X HTC Wildfire X, also named "HTC Wildfire Max" and "HTC Wildfire 10", was released on August 22, 2019, and manufactured by HTC Corporation and InOne Corporation. It has a 6.2" 720×1560 display, 3300 mAh non-replaceable battery, dual-SIM, microSD-expandable storage, and 12-Megapixel rear camera video recording with 1080p at 30fps. The variant with 32 GB internal storage has 3 GB of RAM, the variant with 128 GB internal storage has 4 GB RAM. Software updates HTC announced in June 2010 that the HTC Wildfire was on their list of phones to receive the Android 2.2 "Froyo" update. The update to Android 2.2 includes support for USB tethering, enhanced bluetooth support, multiple keyboard languages, Wi-Fi hotspot tethering and more. However, live wallpapers and Adobe Flash Player support in the browser will not be supported. A leaked build of Android 2.2 and 2.2.1 subsequently surfaced from China and Europe respectively, but with limited language support. It was modified and released by developers on the XDA Forums. In addition to this, several unofficial builds based on AOSP 2.2.1 and 2.3 have also surfaced on XDA. On the morning of 20 December 2010, the 2.2 update was released as a modified build of the HTC Glacier's code. Many customers were surprised at the news, some previously so much as speculating that it would not appear, as the majority of Wildfire users had been waiting in anticipation for the update (heightened by limited news on the subject from HTC) since mid-2010. Customers with unlocked HTC Wildfires received the update first, followed by operator-locked users that received the update shortly after the original release. Key software availability See also Comparison of smartphones Galaxy Nexus References External links HTC Wildfire forum Android (operating system) devices HTC smartphones Mobile phones introduced in 2010 Discontinued smartphones Mobile phones with user-replaceable battery sk:High Tech Computer Corporation

27557107

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/May%202010%20Quebec%20wildfires

May 2010 Quebec wildfires

The May 2010 Quebec wildfires were a series of wildfires that affected over from late May to June 2010. Over 120 fires broke out in one week, with most near La Tuque, northeast of Montreal. Smoke from the wildfires caused smog warnings and resulted in heightened air quality indices throughout southern Quebec, including Montreal, Laval, and the Estrie, Montérégie, Lanaudière, Mauricie, and Centre-du-Québec regions; areas such as Ottawa and New England as far southeast as Eastern Massachusetts and Rhode Island also reported poor air quality. The First Nations reserve of Wemotaci, where firefighters were forced to retreat due to the intensity of the fires and density of the resulting smoke, was evacuated, with more than 1,300 residents being temporarily relocated to the neighbouring city of La Tuque. Marcel Trudel, spokesman of Sopfeu—the organization responsible for containing the wildfires—reported that flames as high as had been observed near the reserve. Three other communities—two of them also First Nations reserves—were evacuated as well. More than 1,200 firefighters worked to control the fires, including 200 from other provinces as well as from the U.S. states of Maine, Massachusetts, New Hampshire and Rhode Island. See also List of fires in Canada List of wildfires References External links Société de protection des forêts contre le feu (Association for the prevention of forest fires) Air Quality EventSpace for Quebec Fires—crowdsourced information about the wildfires. 2010 wildfires in Canada 2010 in Quebec May 2010 events in North America June 2010 events in Canada Natural disasters in Quebec

28206247

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2010%20California%20wildfires

2010 California wildfires

The 2010 California wildfires were a series of wildfires that were active in the state of California during the year 2010. During the year, a total of 6,554 wildfires burned of land. Fires Below is a list of all fires that exceeded during the 2010 fire season. The list is taken from CAL FIRE's list of large fires. References California, 2010 Wildfires in California by year

28224526

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2010%20Russian%20wildfires

2010 Russian wildfires

The 2010 Russian wildfires were several hundred wildfires that broke out across Russia, primarily in the west in summer 2010. They started burning in late July and lasted until early September 2010. The fires were associated with record-high temperatures, which were attributed to climate change—the summer had been the hottest recorded in Russian history—and drought. Russian President Dmitry Medvedev declared a state of emergency in seven regions, and 28 other regions were under a state of emergency due to crop failures caused by the drought. The fires cost roughly $15 billion in damages. A combination of the smoke from the fires, producing heavy smog blanketing large urban regions and the record-breaking heat wave put stress on the Russian healthcare system. Munich Re estimated that in all, 56,000 people died from the effects of the smog and the heat wave. The 2010 wildfires were the worst on record to that time. Prelude During 2010 Russia experienced dry, hot weather starting around late May and lasting until early June. Temperatures of first occurred after 12 June, which alone was an abnormality for the country (average mid-June temperatures seldom rise above ). In late June, Russian regions such as the Eurasian Sakha Republic, as well as areas of partial taiga, had temperatures of . The warm ridging pattern then slowly moved westward to the Ural Mountains, and by July settled in European Russia. On 25 June a new temperature record was set in the Asian portion of Russia, at Belogorsk, Amur Oblast, at . The previous record in the Asian portion was at Aksha on 21 July 2004. A new record for the highest nationwide temperature in Russia was set on 11 July, at , in Yashkul, Kalmykia (in the European portion), beating the previous record of set on 6 August 1940, in Kalmykia. Average temperatures in the region increased to over . The mean high for European Russia recorded on 26 July reached during the day. During July 2010, a large portion of European Russia was more than 7 °C (12.6 °F) warmer than normal. According to the director of the Global Fire Monitoring Centre (GFMC) Johann Goldammer, the wildfires were caused by "negligent [human] behaviour", such as lighting barbecues and fireworks in a densely wooded area. Such human activity, coupled with the unusually high temperatures over the Russian territories, catalyzed this record disturbance. Timeline 29 July Peat fires causing significant loss of properties and an unverified number of human fatalities started in the Nizhny Novgorod Oblast, the Voronezh Oblast, Moscow Oblast, Ryazan Oblast and across central and western Russia due to unseasonably hot weather. 31 July The head of EMERCOM, Sergey Shoygu, reported on 31 July 2010 that the fire situation in the seventeen federal subjects of Russia, especially in Vladimir and Moscow Oblasts, may be complicated. He claimed that in Nizhny Novgorod Oblast the velocity of fires was 100 meters per minute, and the fiery air flow tore trees from the root, like a hurricane. A YouTube video was uploaded, showing a group of men escaping from a burning village in Vyksa district by driving their car over a burning road. 1 August On 1 August 2010, the area of the forest fires was . The Central Regional Center MOE Russia website reported that in Moscow Oblast 130 foci of natural fires were detected, covering the area of 880 hectares. Of those, 67 fires covered an area of 178 hectares. 2 August According to "Interfax" referring to the head of the National Center for Crisis Management of EMERCOM Vladimir Stepanov, as of 2010, Russia revealed approximately 7,000 fires in the area over . Fire was also burning in 14 federal subjects of Russia, and on 2010, officials reported the death of 34 people. Moscow on Monday was covered in smoke, with reduced road visibility. On Monday, 2 August 2010, Vladimir Putin scheduled a meeting with the Governors of Voronezh, Novgorod, Samara, Moscow, Ryazan, and Vladimir Oblasts, as well as the Head of the Republic of Mordovia. 4 August By 4 August, the wildfires were still burning over , with a death toll of at least 48. Some fires burned in areas near the nuclear research center in Sarov. However Rosatom head Sergey Kiriyenko dismissed apprehension of an atomic explosion. President Dmitry Medvedev cut short his summer break to return to Moscow for an emergency meeting of the national security council to address the crisis. At an international meeting on 30 July, amid the ongoing heat wave and wildfires, Medvedev announced on television that "practically everything is burning. The weather is anomalously hot. What's happening with the planet's climate right now needs to be a wake-up call to all of us, meaning all heads of state, all heads of social organizations, in order to take a more energetic approach to countering the global changes to the climate." Medvedev sacked some of his senior navy officers after one fire destroyed Russian navy equipment. The officers were accused of "incomplete professional responsibility" after several buildings were allowed to burn down and vehicles and equipment destroyed. He suggested anyone who had neglected their duties would be prosecuted. On the same day it was reported that another fire was approaching a major secret nuclear research facility in the city of Sarov. Environmental groups, such as the WWF, and "non-systemic" opposition politicians suggested firefighting has been slowed down by the Forest Code law passed by the Duma in 2006 at the order of Putin. The legislation transferred responsibility for the country's vast woodlands to regional authorities, putting 70,000 forestry guards out of work. 5 August According to the Emergencies Ministry, there were 843 reported outbreaks of fires, including 47 peat fires. There were 73 large fires. The fires threatened an animal sanctuary for over 1,800 animals, including dogs and retired circus animals. Almost 600 fires were still burning in the country, and around 2,000 homes had been destroyed. The President fired several high-ranking military officials after fires burned through a secret military base. Carbon monoxide pollution in Moscow was four times above normal. Firefighters fought to prevent the wildfires from reaching Bryansk, an area bordering Ukraine contaminated with radioactive material, including cesium-137 and strontium-90, in the soils following the 1986 Chernobyl disaster. Emergencies Minister Sergey Shoygu warned that fires could release radionuclides into the air. He said that a new zone of radioactive pollution could emerge. Two fires broke out in the region but were contained. 6 August According to the Emergencies Ministry, there were registered 831 fires, including 42 peat fires. 80 large fires were registered in an area of . Almost 162,000 people were reported to be fighting with the flames in the regions of Moscow, Voronezh, Nizhny Novgorod, Ryazan, Ivanovo, Vladimir, Yaroslavl, Tver, Yekaterinburg, Republic of Mordovia, and Mari El Republic. According to the State environmental agency "Mosekomonitoring", in the morning in Moscow, the maximum concentration of carbon monoxide in the air exceeded the acceptable norm by 3.6 times, the content of suspended particles by 2.8 times, and specific hydrocarbons by 1.5 times. The Moscow airports of Domodedovo and Vnukovo were unable to land more than 40 planes and were only able to send about 20 planes due to the strong haze caused by the smoke. As of 10 a.m., visibility at Domodedovo was 350 m and 300 m at Vnukovo. According to the Federal Air Transportation Agency, the Sheremetyevo airport works as usual because of visibility of about 800 m. An international football friendly match (Russia–Bulgaria) scheduled for 11 August was moved to Saint Petersburg. Two Russian Premier League football games were postponed because of the severe environmental situation. According to the spectrometric data received from the NASA satellites Terra and Aqua, the smoke from the fires in some places rose to a height of about 12 kilometers and ended up in the stratosphere, which usually only occurs during volcanic eruptions. Satellite imagery showed that a cloud of smoke wide covered Western Russia. 7 August Emergency officials registered 853 outbreaks of fire by 7 August, including 32 peat fires, with a total area of , in which 244 islands of fire were put out, and 290 new fires sprung up. In Moscow, by noon the concentration of airborne pollutants intensified and reached at 6.6 times normal level for carbon monoxide, and 2.2 times for suspended particulate matter. Seven flights heading for Domodedovo and Vnukovo airports were redirected to alternative airfields. The temperature may have reached in Moscow Oblast. At Sheremetyevo International Airport, visibility was reduced to 325 meters. 8 August Smoke from fires in the Novgorod region travel north, arriving in Saint Petersburg. 10 August Early in the afternoon of 10 August Greenpeace Russia stated that fires were raging in radioactive polluted areas near Bryansk, which is quite polluted due to the Chernobyl disaster of 1986. This area is still heavily contaminated and has no inhabitants. In the Moscow area a heavy thunderstorm broke over the city. NO2 rates decreased from 8 times normal to normal NO2 rates. Unfortunately expectations are not favorable with temperatures over 35 degrees Celsius. Experts stated that the polluted air would continue again within a few days. Environmental scientists stated that the brown cloud produced by the fires may cause soot to land on Arctic sea ice, causing faster melting. The release of industrial polychlorinated biphenyls from the fires and cryoconite causing melting on the Greenland Ice Sheet were also concerns. 12 August With the number of fires being reduced from 612 to 562, the skies over Moscow were mostly clear on 12 August, giving the city a much needed break from the devastating smog. Residents in the city told reporters that they were overjoyed with the suddenly improved air; most of whom stopped wearing their masks as the air was safe to breathe. However, forecasts indicated that a shift in the winds was likely to occur in the coming days, likely bringing the smog back into Moscow. Reports indicated that roughly 80,000 hectares of land were still burning. Press reports stated that a preliminary estimate of damage to the Russian economy as a result of the fires was €11.4 billion ($15 billion). 13 August After weeks without rain, heavy downpours soaked Moscow and nearby areas, bringing further relief to the extended heat wave. However, in Sarov, about east of Moscow, a new fire started near the country's top nuclear research center. Earlier in August, radioactive and explosive materials were moved out of the facility due to the threat of fires; however, they were later returned when the threat lessened. Over 3,400 firefighters were battling the blaze and were being assisted by a special firefighting train. 2 September A new wave of wildfires flared up in Russia in September, killing at least 8 people and destroying nearly 900 buildings. Public health effects Deaths in Moscow averaged 700 a day, about twice the usual number. The heat wave is believed to have been unprecedented in Russian history, and killed 55,736 people, according to the Centre for Research on the Epidemiology of Disasters. Fires have affected areas contaminated by the Chernobyl incident, specifically the surroundings of Bryansk and border regions with Belarus and Ukraine. Due to this, soil and plant particles contaminated by radioactive material could be released into the air and spread over wider areas. The Russian government indicated that there had been no discernible increase in radiation, even though Greenpeace accuses the government of denial. France's Institut de radioprotection et de sûreté nucléaire (Radioprotection and Nuclear Safety Institute) issued its own analysis on 12 August, and concluded that there was no health risk at the time, but that marginally elevated levels of radiation may be detected in the future. International assistance and response Russia received assistance in extinguishing the fires from China, Serbia, Italy, Ukraine, Belarus, Armenia, Kazakhstan, Azerbaijan, Bulgaria, Poland, Lithuania, Iran, Estonia, Uzbekistan, Venezuela, France, Germany, Latvia and Finland Many diplomats and a number of embassies temporarily closed, among them those of Austria, Canada, Germany, Poland and Norway. On its website, the United States Department of State advised Americans traveling to Moscow and surrounding areas should "carefully consider" their plans because of "hazardous levels of air pollution" and "numerous flight delays". Italy's Foreign Ministry advised people to "postpone any travel plans to Moscow that aren't strictly necessary". Volunteer efforts Volunteers took part in firefighting and helping those affected by the fires. In some cases, informal help was faster and more effective than official help. Volunteers bought and transported fire suppression materials, chainsaws, engine-driven water pumps, respirators, food, soap, and drinking water. Volunteer coordination happened via LiveJournal communities, the main one being pozar_ru. There is also a website Russian-fires.ru working on Ushahidi platform that was used at Haiti and Chile earthquakes to coordinate volunteers. The Moscow Times wrote on 17 August 2010:Volunteers, widely snubbed by professional firefighters because of their lack of experience, have saved several villages by using basic shovels and buckets of water and sand. Even after a larger fire is suppressed with a fire hose, the underbrush often continues to burn, and a gust of wind can ignite it into a blaze once again. Using shovels and water backpacks, volunteers in Yuvino isolated burning groundcover, cleared a fire line around the village, and loaned firefighters a pump to fill their trucks. Volunteer casualties One volunteer died in action in the Lukhovitsy District on 29 July 2010; the body was found on 15 August 2010. Another volunteer died in Mordovia from carbon monoxide poisoning on 4 August 2010; the body was found by Police patrol days later. Another volunteer died in a car crash in the Shatursky District on 14 August 2010. Censorship Local Russian commercial and governmental mass media did not provide real-time information for the general public. In the case of a fast-moving wildfire there would be no chance to inform people via mass media about emergency evacuation. Furthermore, there was no official of Medvedev's administration personally responsible for providing emergency information of this kind. In a piece under his byline on the Moscow Times website, "Right Cause" party co-founder Georgy Bovt wrote: State-controlled television revealed as little information as possible to the public about the fires and smog. Its primary goal was to prevent panic. This eerily reminded me of how the Soviet government reacted to the Chernobyl explosion in April 1986. In a similar manner, the authorities withheld information about the extent of the nuclear fallout to "avoid panic". In some cases, no information about villages affected by wildfire was available for two weeks. Doctors from several medical institutions in Moscow, interviewed by an Interfax correspondent, acknowledged that medical professionals were now forbidden to make a diagnosis of "thermal shock". According to a Vedomosti poll on information about the fires in the newspapers, 68% of people said that they trusted online media such as blogs, 28% independent media, and only 4% government media. Government Radio Mayak broadcast on 13 August:Vice-minister of Ministry of Emergency Situations Alexander Chupriyan said on Friday (13 August 2010) that the peat fires were extinguished completely in the Noginsk, Kolomna, Pavlovsky Posad and Orekhovo-Zuyevo areas near Moscow. A volunteer wrote about the same events on 13 August 2010 in the Orekhovo-Zuyevo area in his blog:I have never seen such...Along the roads—the burned forest. Here and there still smoldering, smoking. The road blocks smoke. What you saw in Moscow — it is nothing you have seen. Independent radio РСН on 14 August: The MOE said that nothing is burning...TV show that nothing is burning...Civilians forced to buy fire equipment for firemen ... I saw open fire at Orekhovo-Zuyevo area. Another volunteer wrote about the events on 15 August 2010 in the same Orekhovo-Zuyevo area in his blog:The situation in Orekhovo is stable, i.e. a stable grassroots fire. Russian policies The swamps and bogs surrounding Moscow had been drained in the 1960s for agricultural use and mining of peat to generate energy. In 2002, a series of hard-to-extinguish peat fires led the government to recognize that the peat fields needed to be re-watered to prevent wildfires. By 2010, however, large expanses of peat areas had not been rewatered and were kindling wildfires. Government officials said they could not have anticipated the heatwave, but critics blamed complacent officials for ignoring warnings of blazes near villages. Sergey Robaten, Vadim Tatur, and Maksim Kalashnikov argued that the fires and the inability to contain and extinguish them was due to "the inaction of bureaucrats" and Putin's changing of how the Russian State Fire Service functions in 2001. Putin had transferred responsibility for fighting fires to those renting state property and the subjects of the federation, with the assumption that owners or renters would invest in whatever was necessary to prevent forest fires. However, the reality was more complex; Russian companies were seeking to turn a quick profit and thus neglected forest firefighting. Putin's spokesman remarked, "this is a well-functioning system which only needs some minor adjustments". See also Similar disasters List of wildfires 2012 Krasnodar Krai floods 2010 Bolivia forest fires 2010 China drought and dust storms 2010 Pakistan floods 2010 China floods 2003 European heat wave 1997 Southeast Asian haze Weather and climate Climate of Russia Weather of 2010 Siberian High References External links The Russian Heat Wave of 2010, NOAA Natural Variability Main Culprit of Deadly Russian Heat Wave That Killed Thousands, NOAA – 9 March 2011 Heatwave in Russia – Earth Observatory (NASA) Carbon Monoxide over Western Russia – Earth Observatory (NASA) Fires in Eastern Siberia – Earth Observatory (NASA) Smoke over Western Russia – Earth Observatory (NASA) Smoke over Moscow – Earth Observatory (NASA) Fires and Smoke in Russia – Earth Observatory (NASA) Moscow: Covered in Smoke – slideshow by Life magazine Force Majeure: Wildfires in Russia by Emile Hirsch Russian Wildfires Wildfires Russian Wildfires 2010 Russian wildfires Smog events Health disasters in Russia July 2010 events in Asia August 2010 events in Asia September 2010 events in Asia July 2010 events in Europe August 2010 events in Europe September 2010 events in Europe July 2010 events in Russia August 2010 events in Russia September 2010 events in Russia

30907060

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wildfire%20at%20Midnight

Wildfire at Midnight

Wildfire at Midnight is a novel by Mary Stewart which was first published in 1956. Stewart herself described the book as "an attempt at something different, the classic closed-room detective story with restricted action, a biggish cast, and a closely circular plot". Synopsis Fashion model Gianetta Brooke leaves her usual glamorous surroundings to go on holiday to the Scottish island of Skye, only to find that her ex-husband, writer Nicholas Drury, is staying at the same hotel in Camasunary. Set against the backdrop of recent events at the time of publication—the coronation of Queen Elizabeth II and the Hillary expedition that was the first to reach the summit of Mount Everest—this romantic suspense novel now has a "bygone era" sense of time and place. After two murders take place locally, suspicion falls on the hotel guests, who include an aging "femme-fatale" star stage actress, a mountaineer, a possessive climber and her ingenue apprentice, a jealous wife and philandering husband, an old acquaintance of Gianetta's and Nicholas's, a writer of travel guides, and a handsome local versed in pagan folklore. Gianetta, above suspicion due to her more recent arrival at the hotel, finds herself divided when assisting the police, torn between old loyalties, new sympathies, and her civic duty. Background and analysis The mystery component blends 1953 news events with mountaineering, druid mythology and pagan ritual, along with conflicting views about the conquering of nature: heroic progress or human arrogance? Stewart was familiar with the Isle of Skye, which she had visited with her husband on tours of Scotland. References 1956 British novels Novels by Mary Stewart Novels set in Highland (council area) Novels set in hotels Isle of Skye Novels set on islands Hodder & Stoughton books

56106

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wildfire

Wildfire

A wildfire, forest fire, bushfire, wildland fire or rural fire is an unplanned, uncontrolled and unpredictable fire in an area of combustible vegetation. Depending on the type of vegetation present, a wildfire may be more specifically identified as a bushfire (in Australia), desert fire, grass fire, hill fire, peat fire, prairie fire, vegetation fire, or veld fire. Some natural forest ecosystems depend on wildfire. Wildfires are distinct from beneficial human usage of wildland fire, called controlled or prescribed burning, although controlled burns can turn into wildfires. Modern forest management often engages in prescribed burns to mitigate risk and promote natural forest cycles. Wildfires are often classified by characteristics like cause of ignition, physical properties, combustible material present, and the effect of weather on the fire. Wildfire behavior and severity result from a combination of factors such as available fuels, physical setting, and weather. Climatic cycles with wet periods that create substantial fuels, followed by drought and heat, often proceed severe wildfires. These cycles have been intensified by climate change. Naturally occurring wildfires may have beneficial effects on native vegetation, animals, and ecosystems that have evolved with fire. Many plant species depend on the effects of fire for growth and reproduction. Some natural forests are dependent on wildfire. High-severity wildfires may create complex early seral forest habitat (also called "snag forest habitat"), which may have higher species richness and diversity than an unburned old forest. Human societies can be severely impacted by fires. Effects include the direct health impacts of smoke and fire, destruction of property (especially in wildland–urban interfaces) economic and ecosystem services losses, and contamination of water and soil. Wildfires are among the most common forms of natural disaster in some regions, including Siberia, California, British Columbia, and Australia. Areas with Mediterranean climates or in the taiga biome are particularly susceptible. At a global level, human practices have made the impacts of wildfire worse, with a doubling in land area burned by wildfires compared to natural levels. Humans have impacted wildfire through climate change, land-use change, and wildfire suppression. The increase in severity of fires in the US creates a positive feedback loop by releasing naturally sequestered carbon back into the atmosphere, increasing the atmosphere's greenhouse effect thereby contributing to climate change. Ignition The initial ignition of a fire is usually evaluated for natural or human causes. Natural The following actions can ignite wildfires naturally (without the involvement of humans): lightning, volcanic eruption, sparks from rock falls, spontaneous combustion. Human activity Sources of human-caused fire may include arson, accidental ignition, or the uncontrolled use of fire in land-clearing and agriculture such as the slash-and-burn farming in Southeast Asia. In the tropics, farmers often practice the slash-and-burn method of clearing fields during the dry season. In middle latitudes, the most common human causes of wildfires are equipment generating sparks (chainsaws, grinders, mowers, etc.), overhead power lines, and arson. Arson may account for over 20% of human caused fires. However, in the 2019–20 Australian bushfire season "an independent study found online bots and trolls exaggerating the role of arson in the fires." In the 2023 Canadian wildfires false claims of arson gained traction on social media; however, arson is generally not a main cause of wildfires in Canada. In California, generally 6–10% of wildfires annually are arson. Coal seam fires burn in the thousands around the world, such as those in Burning Mountain, New South Wales; Centralia, Pennsylvania; and several coal-sustained fires in China. They can also flare up unexpectedly and ignite nearby flammable material. Spread The spread of wildfires varies based on the flammable material present, its vertical arrangement and moisture content, and weather conditions. Fuel arrangement and density is governed in part by topography, as land shape determines factors such as available sunlight and water for plant growth. Overall, fire types can be generally characterized by their fuels as follows: Ground fires are fed by subterranean roots, duff on the forest floor, and other buried organic matter. Ground fires typically burn by smoldering, and can burn slowly for days to months, such as peat fires in Kalimantan and Eastern Sumatra, Indonesia, which resulted from a riceland creation project that unintentionally drained and dried the peat. Crawling or surface fires are fueled by low-lying vegetative matter on the forest floor such as leaf and timber litter, debris, grass, and low-lying shrubbery. This kind of fire often burns at a relatively lower temperature than crown fires (less than ) and may spread at slow rate, though steep slopes and wind can accelerate the rate of spread. This fuel type is especially susceptible to ignition due to spotting . Ladder fires consume material between low-level vegetation and tree canopies, such as small trees, downed logs, and vines. Kudzu, Old World climbing fern, and other invasive plants that scale trees may also encourage ladder fires. Crown, canopy, or aerial fires burn suspended material at the canopy level, such as tall trees, vines, and mosses. The ignition of a crown fire, termed crowning, is dependent on the density of the suspended material, canopy height, canopy continuity, sufficient surface and ladder fires, vegetation moisture content, and weather conditions during the blaze. Stand-replacing fires lit by humans can spread into the Amazon rain forest, damaging ecosystems not particularly suited for heat or arid conditions. Physical properties Wildfires occur when all the necessary elements of a fire triangle come together in a susceptible area: an ignition source is brought into contact with a combustible material such as vegetation that is subjected to enough heat and has an adequate supply of oxygen from the ambient air. A high moisture content usually prevents ignition and slows propagation, because higher temperatures are needed to evaporate any water in the material and heat the material to its fire point. Dense forests usually provide more shade, resulting in lower ambient temperatures and greater humidity, and are therefore less susceptible to wildfires. Less dense material such as grasses and leaves are easier to ignite because they contain less water than denser material such as branches and trunks. Plants continuously lose water by evapotranspiration, but water loss is usually balanced by water absorbed from the soil, humidity, or rain. When this balance is not maintained, plants dry out and are therefore more flammable, often as a consequence of droughts. A wildfire front is the portion sustaining continuous flaming combustion, where unburned material meets active flames, or the smoldering transition between unburned and burned material. As the front approaches, the fire heats both the surrounding air and woody material through convection and thermal radiation. First, wood is dried as water is vaporized at a temperature of . Next, the pyrolysis of wood at releases flammable gases. Finally, wood can smolder at or, when heated sufficiently, ignite at . Even before the flames of a wildfire arrive at a particular location, heat transfer from the wildfire front warms the air to , which pre-heats and dries flammable materials, causing materials to ignite faster and allowing the fire to spread faster. High-temperature and long-duration surface wildfires may encourage flashover or torching: the drying of tree canopies and their subsequent ignition from below. Wildfires have a rapid forward rate of spread (FROS) when burning through dense uninterrupted fuels. They can move as fast as in forests and in grasslands. Wildfires can advance tangential to the main front to form a flanking front, or burn in the opposite direction of the main front by backing. They may also spread by jumping or spotting as winds and vertical convection columns carry firebrands (hot wood embers) and other burning materials through the air over roads, rivers, and other barriers that may otherwise act as firebreaks. Torching and fires in tree canopies encourage spotting, and dry ground fuels around a wildfire are especially vulnerable to ignition from firebrands. Spotting can create spot fires as hot embers and firebrands ignite fuels downwind from the fire. In Australian bushfires, spot fires are known to occur as far as from the fire front. Especially large wildfires may affect air currents in their immediate vicinities by the stack effect: air rises as it is heated, and large wildfires create powerful updrafts that will draw in new, cooler air from surrounding areas in thermal columns. Great vertical differences in temperature and humidity encourage pyrocumulus clouds, strong winds, and fire whirls with the force of tornadoes at speeds of more than . Rapid rates of spread, prolific crowning or spotting, the presence of fire whirls, and strong convection columns signify extreme conditions. Intensity variations during day and night Intensity also increases during daytime hours. Burn rates of smoldering logs are up to five times greater during the day due to lower humidity, increased temperatures, and increased wind speeds. Sunlight warms the ground during the day which creates air currents that travel uphill. At night the land cools, creating air currents that travel downhill. Wildfires are fanned by these winds and often follow the air currents over hills and through valleys. Fires in Europe occur frequently during the hours of 12:00 p.m. and 2:00 p.m. Wildfire suppression operations in the United States revolve around a 24-hour fire day that begins at 10:00 a.m. due to the predictable increase in intensity resulting from the daytime warmth. Climate change effects Increasing risks due to heat waves and droughts Climate variability including heat waves, droughts, and El Niño, and regional weather patterns, such as high-pressure ridges, can increase the risk and alter the behavior of wildfires dramatically. Years of high precipitation can produce rapid vegetation growth, which when followed by warmer periods can encourage more widespread fires and longer fire seasons. High temperatures dry out the fuel loads and make them more flammable, increasing tree mortality and posing significant risks to global forest health. Since the mid-1980s, in the Western US, earlier snowmelt and associated warming has also been associated with an increase in length and severity of the wildfire season, or the most fire-prone time of the year. A 2019 study indicates that the increase in fire risk in California may be partially attributable to human-induced climate change. In the summer of 1974–1975 (southern hemisphere), Australia suffered its worst recorded wildfire, when 15% of Australia's land mass suffered "extensive fire damage". Fires that summer burned up an estimated . In Australia, the annual number of hot days (above 35 °C) and very hot days (above 40 °C) has increased significantly in many areas of the country since 1950. The country has always had bushfires but in 2019, the extent and ferocity of these fires increased dramatically. For the first time catastrophic bushfire conditions were declared for Greater Sydney. New South Wales and Queensland declared a state of emergency but fires were also burning in South Australia and Western Australia. In 2019, extreme heat and dryness caused massive wildfires in Siberia, Alaska, Canary Islands, Australia, and in the Amazon rainforest. The fires in the latter were caused mainly by illegal logging. The smoke from the fires expanded on huge territory including major cities, dramatically reducing air quality. As of August 2020, the wildfires in that year were 13% worse than in 2019 due primarily to climate change, deforestation and agricultural burning. The Amazon rainforest's existence is threatened by fires. Record-breaking wildfires in 2021 occurred in Turkey, Greece and Russia, thought to be linked to climate change. Carbon dioxide and other emissions from fires Wildfires release large amounts of carbon dioxide, black and brown carbon particles, and ozone precursors such as volatile organic compounds and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere. These emissions affect radiation, clouds, and climate on regional and even global scales. Wildfires also emit substantial amounts of semi-volatile organic species that can partition from the gas phase to form secondary organic aerosol (SOA) over hours to days after emission. In addition, the formation of the other pollutants as the air is transported can lead to harmful exposures for populations in regions far away from the wildfires. While direct emissions of harmful pollutants can affect first responders and residents, wildfire smoke can also be transported over long distances and impact air quality across local, regional, and global scales. Over the past century, wildfires have accounted for 20–25% of global carbon emissions, the remainder from human activities. Global carbon emissions from wildfires through August 2020 equaled the average annual emissions of the European Union. In 2020, the carbon released by California's wildfires was significantly larger than the state's other carbon emissions. Forest fires in Indonesia in 1997 were estimated to have released between 0.81 and 2.57 gigatonnes (0.89 and 2.83 billion short tons) of CO2 into the atmosphere, which is between 13%–40% of the annual global carbon dioxide emissions from burning fossil fuels. In June and July 2019, fires in the Arctic emitted more than 140 megatons of carbon dioxide, according to an analysis by CAMS. To put that into perspective this amounts to the same amount of carbon emitted by 36 million cars in a year. The recent wildfires and their massive CO2 emissions mean that it will be important to take them into consideration when implementing measures for reaching greenhouse gas reduction targets accorded with the Paris climate agreement. Due to the complex oxidative chemistry occurring during the transport of wildfire smoke in the atmosphere, the toxicity of emissions was indicated to increase over time. Atmospheric models suggest that these concentrations of sooty particles could increase absorption of incoming solar radiation during winter months by as much as 15%. The Amazon is estimated to hold around 90 billion tons of carbon. As of 2019, the earth's atmosphere has 415 parts per million of carbon, and the destruction of the Amazon would add about 38 parts per million. Research has shown wildfire smoke can have a cooling effect. Prevention Wildfire prevention refers to the preemptive methods aimed at reducing the risk of fires as well as lessening its severity and spread. Prevention techniques aim to manage air quality, maintain ecological balances, protect resources, and to affect future fires. Prevention policies must consider the role that humans play in wildfires, since, for example, 95% of forest fires in Europe are related to human involvement. Wildfire prevention programs around the world may employ techniques such as wildland fire use (WFU) and prescribed or controlled burns. Wildland fire use refers to any fire of natural causes that is monitored but allowed to burn. Controlled burns are fires ignited by government agencies under less dangerous weather conditions. Other objectives can include maintenance of healthy forests, rangelands, and wetlands, and support of ecosystem diversity. Strategies for wildfire prevention, detection, control and suppression have varied over the years. One common and inexpensive technique to reduce the risk of uncontrolled wildfires is controlled burning: intentionally igniting smaller less-intense fires to minimize the amount of flammable material available for a potential wildfire. Vegetation may be burned periodically to limit the accumulation of plants and other debris that may serve as fuel, while also maintaining high species diversity. While other people claim that controlled burns and a policy of allowing some wildfires to burn is the cheapest method and an ecologically appropriate policy for many forests, they tend not to take into account the economic value of resources that are consumed by the fire, especially merchantable timber. Some studies conclude that while fuels may also be removed by logging, such thinning treatments may not be effective at reducing fire severity under extreme weather conditions. Building codes in fire-prone areas typically require that structures be built of flame-resistant materials and a defensible space be maintained by clearing flammable materials within a prescribed distance from the structure. Communities in the Philippines also maintain fire lines wide between the forest and their village, and patrol these lines during summer months or seasons of dry weather. Continued residential development in fire-prone areas and rebuilding structures destroyed by fires has been met with criticism. The ecological benefits of fire are often overridden by the economic and safety benefits of protecting structures and human life. Detection The demand for timely, high-quality fire information has increased in recent years. Fast and effective detection is a key factor in wildfire fighting. Early detection efforts were focused on early response, accurate results in both daytime and nighttime, and the ability to prioritize fire danger. Fire lookout towers were used in the United States in the early 20th century and fires were reported using telephones, carrier pigeons, and heliographs. Aerial and land photography using instant cameras were used in the 1950s until infrared scanning was developed for fire detection in the 1960s. However, information analysis and delivery was often delayed by limitations in communication technology. Early satellite-derived fire analyses were hand-drawn on maps at a remote site and sent via overnight mail to the fire manager. During the Yellowstone fires of 1988, a data station was established in West Yellowstone, permitting the delivery of satellite-based fire information in approximately four hours. Public hotlines, fire lookouts in towers, and ground and aerial patrols can be used as a means of early detection of forest fires. However, accurate human observation may be limited by operator fatigue, time of day, time of year, and geographic location. Electronic systems have gained popularity in recent years as a possible resolution to human operator error. These systems may be semi- or fully automated and employ systems based on the risk area and degree of human presence, as suggested by GIS data analyses. An integrated approach of multiple systems can be used to merge satellite data, aerial imagery, and personnel position via Global Positioning System (GPS) into a collective whole for near-realtime use by wireless Incident Command Centers. Local sensor networks A small, high risk area that features thick vegetation, a strong human presence, or is close to a critical urban area can be monitored using a local sensor network. Detection systems may include wireless sensor networks that act as automated weather systems: detecting temperature, humidity, and smoke. These may be battery-powered, solar-powered, or tree-rechargeable: able to recharge their battery systems using the small electrical currents in plant material. Larger, medium-risk areas can be monitored by scanning towers that incorporate fixed cameras and sensors to detect smoke or additional factors such as the infrared signature of carbon dioxide produced by fires. Additional capabilities such as night vision, brightness detection, and color change detection may also be incorporated into sensor arrays. The Department of Natural Resources signed a contract with PanoAI for the installation of 360 degree 'rapid detection' cameras around the Pacific northwest, which are mounted on cell towers and are capable of 24/7 monitoring of a 15 mile radius. Additionally, Sensaio Tech, based in Brazil and Toronto, has released a sensor device that continuously monitors 14 different variables common in forests, ranging from soil temperature to salinity. This information is connected live back to clients through dashboard visualizations, while mobile notifications are provided regarding dangerous levels. Satellite and aerial monitoring Satellite and aerial monitoring through the use of planes, helicopter, or UAVs can provide a wider view and may be sufficient to monitor very large, low risk areas. These more sophisticated systems employ GPS and aircraft-mounted infrared or high-resolution visible cameras to identify and target wildfires. Satellite-mounted sensors such as Envisat's Advanced Along Track Scanning Radiometer and European Remote-Sensing Satellite's Along-Track Scanning Radiometer can measure infrared radiation emitted by fires, identifying hot spots greater than . The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration's Hazard Mapping System combines remote-sensing data from satellite sources such as Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellite (GOES), Moderate-Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS), and Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer (AVHRR) for detection of fire and smoke plume locations. However, satellite detection is prone to offset errors, anywhere from for MODIS and AVHRR data and up to for GOES data. Satellites in geostationary orbits may become disabled, and satellites in polar orbits are often limited by their short window of observation time. Cloud cover and image resolution may also limit the effectiveness of satellite imagery. Global Forest Watch provides detailed daily updates on fire alerts. In 2015 a new fire detection tool is in operation at the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) Forest Service (USFS) which uses data from the Suomi National Polar-orbiting Partnership (NPP) satellite to detect smaller fires in more detail than previous space-based products. The high-resolution data is used with a computer model to predict how a fire will change direction based on weather and land conditions. In 2014, an international campaign was organized in South Africa's Kruger National Park to validate fire detection products including the new VIIRS active fire data. In advance of that campaign, the Meraka Institute of the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research in Pretoria, South Africa, an early adopter of the VIIRS 375 m fire product, put it to use during several large wildfires in Kruger. There have also been numerous companies and start-ups releasing new drone technology, many of which use AI. Data Blanket, a Seattle-based startup backed by Bill Gates, has developed drones capable of performing self-guided flights in order to conduct comprehensive assessments of wildfires and the surrounding site, providing real-time and critical information such as local vegetation and fuels. The drones are equipped with RGB and infrared cameras, AI-based computational software, 5G/Wi-Fi, and advanced navigational features. Data Blanket has also stated that its system will eventually be capable of producing micro-weather data, further supporting firefighter efforts by delivering crucial information. Additionally, scientists from Imperial College London and Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Science and Technology, have designed the experimental 'FireDrone', which can handle temperatures of up to 200C for 10 minutes.Another company, the German-based Orora Tech, as of 2023 has two satellites in orbit packaged with infrared sensors that are capable of quickly detecting temperature and soil anomalies, with the ability to predict the likely growth and spread rate of a fire in comparison to others. The company has stated that it will be capable of scanning the earth 48 times per day by 2026. Artificial intelligence Between 2022–2023, wildfires throughout North America prompted an uptake in the delivery and design of various technologies using artificial intelligence for early detection, prevention, and prediction of wildfires. Cornea (company), centered in New York, has developed a system utilizing topographical and geographical data that can be used to predict potential fire patterns and probability. Suppression Wildfire suppression depends on the technologies available in the area in which the wildfire occurs. In less developed nations the techniques used can be as simple as throwing sand or beating the fire with sticks or palm fronds. In more advanced nations, the suppression methods vary due to increased technological capacity. Silver iodide can be used to encourage snow fall, while fire retardants and water can be dropped onto fires by unmanned aerial vehicles, planes, and helicopters. Complete fire suppression is no longer an expectation, but the majority of wildfires are often extinguished before they grow out of control. While more than 99% of the 10,000 new wildfires each year are contained, escaped wildfires under extreme weather conditions are difficult to suppress without a change in the weather. Wildfires in Canada and the US burn an average of per year. Above all, fighting wildfires can become deadly. A wildfire's burning front may also change direction unexpectedly and jump across fire breaks. Intense heat and smoke can lead to disorientation and loss of appreciation of the direction of the fire, which can make fires particularly dangerous. For example, during the 1949 Mann Gulch fire in Montana, United States, thirteen smokejumpers died when they lost their communication links, became disoriented, and were overtaken by the fire. In the Australian February 2009 Victorian bushfires, at least 173 people died and over 2,029 homes and 3,500 structures were lost when they became engulfed by wildfire. Costs of wildfire suppression The suppression of wild fires takes up a large amount of a country's gross domestic product which directly affects the country's economy. While costs vary wildly from year to year, depending on the severity of each fire season, in the United States, local, state, federal and tribal agencies collectively spend tens of billions of dollars annually to suppress wildfires. In the United States, it was reported that approximately $6 billion was spent between 2004–2008 to suppress wildfires in the country. In California, the U.S. Forest Service spends about $200 million per year to suppress 98% of wildfires and up to $1 billion to suppress the other 2% of fires that escape initial attack and become large. Wildland firefighting safety Wildland fire fighters face several life-threatening hazards including heat stress, fatigue, smoke and dust, as well as the risk of other injuries such as burns, cuts and scrapes, animal bites, and even rhabdomyolysis. Between 2000 and 2016, more than 350 wildland firefighters died on-duty. Especially in hot weather conditions, fires present the risk of heat stress, which can entail feeling heat, fatigue, weakness, vertigo, headache, or nausea. Heat stress can progress into heat strain, which entails physiological changes such as increased heart rate and core body temperature. This can lead to heat-related illnesses, such as heat rash, cramps, exhaustion or heat stroke. Various factors can contribute to the risks posed by heat stress, including strenuous work, personal risk factors such as age and fitness, dehydration, sleep deprivation, and burdensome personal protective equipment. Rest, cool water, and occasional breaks are crucial to mitigating the effects of heat stress. Smoke, ash, and debris can also pose serious respiratory hazards for wildland firefighters. The smoke and dust from wildfires can contain gases such as carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide and formaldehyde, as well as particulates such as ash and silica. To reduce smoke exposure, wildfire fighting crews should, whenever possible, rotate firefighters through areas of heavy smoke, avoid downwind firefighting, use equipment rather than people in holding areas, and minimize mop-up. Camps and command posts should also be located upwind of wildfires. Protective clothing and equipment can also help minimize exposure to smoke and ash. Firefighters are also at risk of cardiac events including strokes and heart attacks. Firefighters should maintain good physical fitness. Fitness programs, medical screening and examination programs which include stress tests can minimize the risks of firefighting cardiac problems. Other injury hazards wildland firefighters face include slips, trips, falls, burns, scrapes, and cuts from tools and equipment, being struck by trees, vehicles, or other objects, plant hazards such as thorns and poison ivy, snake and animal bites, vehicle crashes, electrocution from power lines or lightning storms, and unstable building structures. Fire retardants Fire retardants are used to slow wildfires by inhibiting combustion. They are aqueous solutions of ammonium phosphates and ammonium sulfates, as well as thickening agents. The decision to apply retardant depends on the magnitude, location and intensity of the wildfire. In certain instances, fire retardant may also be applied as a precautionary fire defense measure. Typical fire retardants contain the same agents as fertilizers. Fire retardants may also affect water quality through leaching, eutrophication, or misapplication. Fire retardant's effects on drinking water remain inconclusive. Dilution factors, including water body size, rainfall, and water flow rates lessen the concentration and potency of fire retardant. Wildfire debris (ash and sediment) clog rivers and reservoirs increasing the risk for floods and erosion that ultimately slow and/or damage water treatment systems. There is continued concern of fire retardant effects on land, water, wildlife habitats, and watershed quality, additional research is needed. However, on the positive side, fire retardant (specifically its nitrogen and phosphorus components) has been shown to have a fertilizing effect on nutrient-deprived soils and thus creates a temporary increase in vegetation. Modeling Impacts on the natural environment On the atmosphere Most of Earth's weather and air pollution resides in the troposphere, the part of the atmosphere that extends from the surface of the planet to a height of about . The vertical lift of a severe thunderstorm or pyrocumulonimbus can be enhanced in the area of a large wildfire, which can propel smoke, soot, and other particulate matter as high as the lower stratosphere. Previously, prevailing scientific theory held that most particles in the stratosphere came from volcanoes, but smoke and other wildfire emissions have been detected from the lower stratosphere. Pyrocumulus clouds can reach over wildfires. Satellite observation of smoke plumes from wildfires revealed that the plumes could be traced intact for distances exceeding . Computer-aided models such as CALPUFF may help predict the size and direction of wildfire-generated smoke plumes by using atmospheric dispersion modeling. Wildfires can affect local atmospheric pollution, and release carbon in the form of carbon dioxide. Wildfire emissions contain fine particulate matter which can cause cardiovascular and respiratory problems. Increased fire byproducts in the troposphere can increase ozone concentrations beyond safe levels. On ecosystems Wildfires are common in climates that are sufficiently moist to allow the growth of vegetation but feature extended dry, hot periods. Such places include the vegetated areas of Australia and Southeast Asia, the veld in southern Africa, the fynbos in the Western Cape of South Africa, the forested areas of the United States and Canada, and the Mediterranean Basin. High-severity wildfire creates complex early seral forest habitat (also called “snag forest habitat”), which often has higher species richness and diversity than unburned old forest. Plant and animal species in most types of North American forests evolved with fire, and many of these species depend on wildfires, and particularly high-severity fires, to reproduce and grow. Fire helps to return nutrients from plant matter back to the soil. The heat from fire is necessary to the germination of certain types of seeds, and the snags (dead trees) and early successional forests created by high-severity fire create habitat conditions that are beneficial to wildlife. Early successional forests created by high-severity fire support some of the highest levels of native biodiversity found in temperate conifer forests. Post-fire logging has no ecological benefits and many negative impacts; the same is often true for post-fire seeding. Although some ecosystems rely on naturally occurring fires to regulate growth, some ecosystems suffer from too much fire, such as the chaparral in southern California and lower-elevation deserts in the American Southwest. The increased fire frequency in these ordinarily fire-dependent areas has upset natural cycles, damaged native plant communities, and encouraged the growth of non-native weeds. Invasive species, such as Lygodium microphyllum and Bromus tectorum, can grow rapidly in areas that were damaged by fires. Because they are highly flammable, they can increase the future risk of fire, creating a positive feedback loop that increases fire frequency and further alters native vegetation communities. In the Amazon rainforest, drought, logging, cattle ranching practices, and slash-and-burn agriculture damage fire-resistant forests and promote the growth of flammable brush, creating a cycle that encourages more burning. Fires in the rainforest threaten its collection of diverse species and produce large amounts of CO2. Also, fires in the rainforest, along with drought and human involvement, could damage or destroy more than half of the Amazon rainforest by 2030. Wildfires generate ash, reduce the availability of organic nutrients, and cause an increase in water runoff, eroding other nutrients and creating flash flood conditions. A 2003 wildfire in the North Yorkshire Moors burned off of heather and the underlying peat layers. Afterwards, wind erosion stripped the ash and the exposed soil, revealing archaeological remains dating to 10,000 BC. Wildfires can also have an effect on climate change, increasing the amount of carbon released into the atmosphere and inhibiting vegetation growth, which affects overall carbon uptake by plants. On waterways Debris and chemical runoff into waterways after wildfires can make drinking water sources unsafe. Though it is challenging to quantify the impacts of wildfires on surface water quality, research suggests that the concentration of many pollutants increases post-fire. The impacts occur during active burning and up to years later. Increases in nutrients and total suspended sediments can happen within a year while heavy metal concentrations may peak 1-2 years after a wildfire. Benzene is one of many chemicals that have been found in drinking water systems after wildfires. Benzene can permeate certain plastic pipes and thus require long times to be removed from the water distribution infrastructure. Researchers estimated that, in worst case scenarios, more than 286 days of constant flushing of a contaminated HDPE service line were needed to reduce benzene below safe drinking water limits. Temperature increases caused by fires, including wildfires, can cause plastic water pipes to generate toxic chemicals such as benzene. On plant and animals Impacts on humans Wildfire risk is the chance that a wildfire will start in or reach a particular area and the potential loss of human values if it does. Risk is dependent on variable factors such as human activities, weather patterns, availability of wildfire fuels, and the availability or lack of resources to suppress a fire. Wildfires have continually been a threat to human populations. However, human-induced geographic and climatic changes are exposing populations more frequently to wildfires and increasing wildfire risk. It is speculated that the increase in wildfires arises from a century of wildfire suppression coupled with the rapid expansion of human developments into fire-prone wildlands. Wildfires are naturally occurring events that aid in promoting forest health. Global warming and climate changes are causing an increase in temperatures and more droughts nationwide which contributes to an increase in wildfire risk. Airborne hazards The most noticeable adverse effect of wildfires is the destruction of property. However, hazardous chemicals released also significantly impact human health. Wildfire smoke is composed primarily of carbon dioxide and water vapor. Other common components present in lower concentrations are carbon monoxide, formaldehyde, acrolein, polyaromatic hydrocarbons, and benzene. Small airborne particulates (in solid form or liquid droplets) are also present in smoke and ash debris. 80–90% of wildfire smoke, by mass, is within the fine particle size class of 2.5 micrometers in diameter or smaller. Carbon dioxide in smoke poses a low health risk due to its low toxicity. Rather, carbon monoxide and fine particulate matter, particularly 2.5 µm in diameter and smaller, have been identified as the major health threats. High levels of heavy metals, including lead, arsenic, cadmium, and copper were found in the ash debris following the 2007 Californian wildfires. A national clean-up campaign was organised in fear of the health effects from exposure. In the devastating California Camp Fire (2018) that killed 85 people, lead levels increased by around 50 times in the hours following the fire at a site nearby (Chico). Zinc concentration also increased significantly in Modesto, 150 miles away. Heavy metals such as manganese and calcium were found in numerous California fires as well. Other chemicals are considered to be significant hazards but are found in concentrations that are too low to cause detectable health effects. The degree of wildfire smoke exposure to an individual is dependent on the length, severity, duration, and proximity of the fire. People are exposed directly to smoke via the respiratory tract through inhalation of air pollutants. Indirectly, communities are exposed to wildfire debris that can contaminate soil and water supplies. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) developed the air quality index (AQI), a public resource that provides national air quality standard concentrations for common air pollutants. The public can use it to determine their exposure to hazardous air pollutants based on visibility range. Health effects Wildfire smoke contains particulates that may have adverse effects upon the human respiratory system. Evidence of the health effects should be relayed to the public so that exposure may be limited. The evidence can also be used to influence policy to promote positive health outcomes. Inhalation of smoke from a wildfire can be a health hazard. Wildfire smoke is composed of combustion products i.e. carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, water vapor, particulate matter, organic chemicals, nitrogen oxides and other compounds. The principal health concern is the inhalation of particulate matter and carbon monoxide. Particulate matter (PM) is a type of air pollution made up of particles of dust and liquid droplets. They are characterized into three categories based on particle diameter: coarse PM, fine PM, and ultrafine PM. Coarse particles are between 2.5 micrometers and 10 micrometers, fine particles measure 0.1 to 2.5 micrometers, and ultrafine particle are less than 0.1 micrometer. lmpact on the body upon inhalation varies by size. Coarse PM is filtered by the upper airways and can accumulate and cause pulmonary inflammation. This can result in eye and sinus irritation as well as sore throat and coughing. Coarse PM is often composed of heavier and more toxic materials that lead to short-term effects with stronger impact. Smaller PM moves further into the respiratory system creating issues deep into the lungs and the bloodstream. In asthma patients, PM2.5 causes inflammation but also increases oxidative stress in the epithelial cells. These particulates also cause apoptosis and autophagy in lung epithelial cells. Both processes damage the cells and impact cell function. This damage impacts those with respiratory conditions such as asthma where the lung tissues and function are already compromised. Particulates less than 0.1 micrometer are called ultrafine particle (UFP). It is a major component of wildfire smoke. UFP can enter the bloodstream like PM2.5-0.1 however studies show that it works into the blood much quicker. The inflammation and epithelial damage done by UFP has also shown to be much more severe. PM2.5 is of the largest concern in regards to wildfire. This is particularly hazardous to the very young, elderly and those with chronic conditions such as asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), cystic fibrosis and cardiovascular conditions. The illnesses most commonly associated with exposure to fine PM from wildfire smoke are bronchitis, exacerbation of asthma or COPD, and pneumonia. Symptoms of these complications include wheezing and shortness of breath and cardiovascular symptoms include chest pain, rapid heart rate and fatigue. Asthma exacerbation Several epidemiological studies have demonstrated a close association between air pollution and respiratory allergic diseases such as bronchial asthma. An observational study of smoke exposure related to the 2007 San Diego wildfires revealed an increase both in healthcare utilization and respiratory diagnoses, especially asthma among the group sampled. Projected climate scenarios of wildfire occurrences predict significant increases in respiratory conditions among young children. Particulate Matter (PM) triggers a series of biological processes including inflammatory immune response, oxidative stress, which are associated with harmful changes in allergic respiratory diseases. Although some studies demonstrated no significant acute changes in lung function among people with asthma related to PM from wildfires, a possible explanation for these counterintuitive findings is the increased use of quick-relief medications, such as inhalers, in response to elevated levels of smoke among those already diagnosed with asthma. There is consistent evidence between wildfire smoke and the exacerbation of asthma. Asthma is one of the most common chronic disease among children in the United States, affecting an estimated 6.2 million children. Research on asthma risk focuses specifically on the risk of air pollution during the gestational period. Several pathophysiology processes are involved in this. Considerable airway development occurs during the 2nd and 3rd trimesters and continues until 3 years of age. It is hypothesized that exposure to these toxins during this period could have consequential effects, as the epithelium of the lungs during this time could have increased permeability to toxins. Exposure to air pollution during parental and pre-natal stage could induce epigenetic changes which are responsible for the development of asthma. Studies have found significant association between PM2.5, NO2 and development of asthma during childhood despite heterogeneity among studies. Furthermore, maternal exposure to chronic stressors is most likely present in distressed communities, and as this can be correlated with childhood asthma, it may further explain links between early childhood exposure to air pollution, neighborhood poverty, and childhood risk. Carbon monoxide danger Carbon monoxide (CO) is a colorless, odorless gas that can be found at the highest concentration at close proximity to a smoldering fire. Thus, it is a serious threat to the health of wildfire firefighters. CO in smoke can be inhaled into the lungs where it is absorbed into the bloodstream and reduces oxygen delivery to the body's vital organs. At high concentrations, it can cause headaches, weakness, dizziness, confusion, nausea, disorientation, visual impairment, coma, and even death. Even at lower concentrations, such as those found at wildfires, individuals with cardiovascular disease may experience chest pain and cardiac arrhythmia. A recent study tracking the number and cause of wildfire firefighter deaths from 1990 to 2006 found that 21.9% of the deaths occurred from heart attacks. Another important and somewhat less obvious health effect of wildfires is psychiatric diseases and disorders. Both adults and children from various countries who were directly and indirectly affected by wildfires were found to demonstrate different mental conditions linked to their experience with the wildfires. These include post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), depression, anxiety, and phobias. Epidemiology The Western US has seen an increase in both the frequency and intensity of wildfires over the last several decades. This has been attributed to the arid climate of there and the effects of global warming. An estimated 46 million people were exposed to wildfire smoke from 2004 to 2009 in the Western US. Evidence has demonstrated that wildfire smoke can increase levels of airborne particulate. The EPA has defined acceptable concentrations of PM in the air, through the National Ambient Air Quality Standards and monitoring of ambient air quality has been mandated. Due to these monitoring programs and the incidence of several large wildfires near populated areas, epidemiological studies have been conducted and demonstrate an association between human health effects and an increase in fine particulate matter due to wildfire smoke. An increase in PM smoke emitted from the Hayman fire in Colorado in June 2002, was associated with an increase in respiratory symptoms in patients with COPD. Looking at the wildfires in Southern California in 2003, investigators have shown an increase in hospital admissions due to asthma symptoms while being exposed to peak concentrations of PM in smoke. Another epidemiological study found a 7.2% (95% confidence interval: 0.25%, 15%) increase in risk of respiratory related hospital admissions during smoke wave days with high wildfire-specific particulate matter 2.5 compared to matched non-smoke-wave days. Children participating in the Children's Health Study were also found to have an increase in eye and respiratory symptoms, medication use and physician visits. Mothers who were pregnant during the fires gave birth to babies with a slightly reduced average birth weight compared to those who were not exposed. Suggesting that pregnant women may also be at greater risk to adverse effects from wildfire. Worldwide, it is estimated that 339,000 people die due to the effects of wildfire smoke each year. Besides the size of PM, their chemical composition should also be considered. Antecedent studies have demonstrated that the chemical composition of PM2.5 from wildfire smoke can yield different estimates of human health outcomes as compared to other sources of smoke such as solid fuels. Post-fire risks After a wildfire, hazards remain. Residents returning to their homes may be at risk from falling fire-weakened trees. Humans and pets may also be harmed by falling into ash pits. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) also reports that wildfires cause significant damage to electric systems, especially in dry regions. Other post-fire risks, can increase if other extreme weather follows. For example, wildfires make soil less able to absorb precipitation, so heavy rainfall can result in more severe flooding and damages like mud slides. At-risk groups Firefighters Firefighters are at greatest risk for acute and chronic health effects resulting from wildfire smoke exposure. Due to firefighters' occupational duties, they are frequently exposed to hazardous chemicals at close proximity for longer periods of time. A case study on the exposure of wildfire smoke among wildland firefighters shows that firefighters are exposed to significant levels of carbon monoxide and respiratory irritants above OSHA-permissible exposure limits (PEL) and ACGIH threshold limit values (TLV). 5–10% are overexposed. Between 2001 and 2012, over 200 fatalities occurred among wildland firefighters. In addition to heat and chemical hazards, firefighters are also at risk for electrocution from power lines; injuries from equipment; slips, trips, and falls; injuries from vehicle rollovers; heat-related illness; insect bites and stings; stress; and rhabdomyolysis. Residents Residents in communities surrounding wildfires are exposed to lower concentrations of chemicals, but they are at a greater risk for indirect exposure through water or soil contamination. Exposure to residents is greatly dependent on individual susceptibility. Vulnerable persons such as children (ages 0–4), the elderly (ages 65 and older), smokers, and pregnant women are at an increased risk due to their already compromised body systems, even when the exposures are present at low chemical concentrations and for relatively short exposure periods. They are also at risk for future wildfires and may move away to areas they consider less risky. Wildfires affect large numbers of people in Western Canada and the United States. In California alone, more than 350,000 people live in towns and cities in "very high fire hazard severity zones". Direct risks to building residents in fire-prone areas can be moderated through design choices such as choosing fire-resistant vegetation, maintaining landscaping to avoid debris accumulation and to create firebreaks, and by selecting fire-retardant roofing materials. Potential compounding issues with poor air quality and heat during warmer months may be addressed with MERV 11 or higher outdoor air filtration in building ventilation systems, mechanical cooling, and a provision of a refuge area with additional air cleaning and cooling, if needed. History The first evidence of wildfires is fossils of the giant fungi Prototaxites preserved as charcoal, discovered in South Wales and Poland, dating to the Silurian period (about ). Smoldering surface fires started to occur sometime before the Early Devonian period . Low atmospheric oxygen during the Middle and Late Devonian was accompanied by a decrease in charcoal abundance. Additional charcoal evidence suggests that fires continued through the Carboniferous period. Later, the overall increase of atmospheric oxygen from 13% in the Late Devonian to 30–31% by the Late Permian was accompanied by a more widespread distribution of wildfires. Later, a decrease in wildfire-related charcoal deposits from the late Permian to the Triassic periods is explained by a decrease in oxygen levels. Wildfires during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic periods followed patterns similar to fires that occur in modern times. Surface fires driven by dry seasons are evident in Devonian and Carboniferous progymnosperm forests. Lepidodendron forests dating to the Carboniferous period have charred peaks, evidence of crown fires. In Jurassic gymnosperm forests, there is evidence of high frequency, light surface fires. The increase of fire activity in the late Tertiary is possibly due to the increase of C4-type grasses. As these grasses shifted to more mesic habitats, their high flammability increased fire frequency, promoting grasslands over woodlands. However, fire-prone habitats may have contributed to the prominence of trees such as those of the genera Eucalyptus, Pinus and Sequoia, which have thick bark to withstand fires and employ pyriscence. Human involvement The human use of fire for agricultural and hunting purposes during the Paleolithic and Mesolithic ages altered pre-existing landscapes and fire regimes. Woodlands were gradually replaced by smaller vegetation that facilitated travel, hunting, seed-gathering and planting. In recorded human history, minor allusions to wildfires were mentioned in the Bible and by classical writers such as Homer. However, while ancient Hebrew, Greek, and Roman writers were aware of fires, they were not very interested in the uncultivated lands where wildfires occurred. Wildfires were used in battles throughout human history as early thermal weapons. From the Middle ages, accounts were written of occupational burning as well as customs and laws that governed the use of fire. In Germany, regular burning was documented in 1290 in the Odenwald and in 1344 in the Black Forest. In the 14th century Sardinia, firebreaks were used for wildfire protection. In Spain during the 1550s, sheep husbandry was discouraged in certain provinces by Philip II due to the harmful effects of fires used in transhumance. As early as the 17th century, Native Americans were observed using fire for many purposes including cultivation, signaling, and warfare. Scottish botanist David Douglas noted the native use of fire for tobacco cultivation, to encourage deer into smaller areas for hunting purposes, and to improve foraging for honey and grasshoppers. Charcoal found in sedimentary deposits off the Pacific coast of Central America suggests that more burning occurred in the 50 years before the Spanish colonization of the Americas than after the colonization. In the post-World War II Baltic region, socio-economic changes led more stringent air quality standards and bans on fires that eliminated traditional burning practices. In the mid-19th century, explorers from observed Australian Aborigines using fire for ground clearing, hunting, and regeneration of plant food in a method later named fire-stick farming. Such careful use of fire has been employed for centuries in lands protected by Kakadu National Park to encourage biodiversity. Wildfires typically occur during periods of increased temperature and drought. An increase in fire-related debris flow in alluvial fans of northeastern Yellowstone National Park was linked to the period between AD 1050 and 1200, coinciding with the Medieval Warm Period. However, human influence caused an increase in fire frequency. Dendrochronological fire scar data and charcoal layer data in Finland suggests that, while many fires occurred during severe drought conditions, an increase in the number of fires during 850 BC and 1660 AD can be attributed to human influence. Charcoal evidence from the Americas suggested a general decrease in wildfires between 1 AD and 1750 compared to previous years. However, a period of increased fire frequency between 1750 and 1870 was suggested by charcoal data from North America and Asia, attributed to human population growth and influences such as land clearing practices. This period was followed by an overall decrease in burning in the 20th century, linked to the expansion of agriculture, increased livestock grazing, and fire prevention efforts. A meta-analysis found that 17 times more land burned annually in California before 1800 compared to recent decades (1,800,000 hectares/year compared to 102,000 hectares/year). According to a paper published in the journal Science, the number of natural and human-caused fires decreased by 24.3% between 1998 and 2015. Researchers explain this as a transition from nomadism to settled lifestyle and intensification of agriculture that lead to a drop in the use of fire for land clearing. Increases of certain tree species (i.e. conifers) over others (i.e. deciduous trees) can increase wildfire risk, especially if these trees are also planted in monocultures Some invasive species, moved in by humans (i.e., for the pulp and paper industry) have in some cases also increased the intensity of wildfires. Examples include species such as Eucalyptus in California and gamba grass in Australia. Society and culture Wildfires have a place in many cultures. "To spread like wildfire" is a common idiom in English, meaning something that "quickly affects or becomes known by more and more people". Wildfire activity has been attributed as a major factor in the development of Ancient Greece. In modern Greece, as in many other regions, it is the most common natural disaster and figures prominently in the social and economic lives of its people. In 1937, U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt initiated a nationwide fire prevention campaign, highlighting the role of human carelessness in forest fires. Later posters of the program featured Uncle Sam, characters from the Disney movie Bambi, and the official mascot of the U.S. Forest Service, Smokey Bear. The Smokey Bear fire prevention campaign has yielded one of the most popular characters in the United States; for many years there was a living Smokey Bear mascot, and it has been commemorated on postage stamps. There are also significant indirect or second-order societal impacts from wildfire, such as demands on utilities to prevent power transmission equipment from becoming ignition sources, and the cancelation or nonrenewal of homeowners insurance for residents living in wildfire-prone areas. See also Dry thunderstorm Fire-adapted communities Fire ecology List of wildfires Bushfires in Australia Wildfires in the United States Pyrogeography Remote Automated Weather Station Wildland–urban interface Wildfire risk indices: Forest fire weather index (Canada, France) Haines Index Keetch-Byram Drought Index McArthur Forest Fire Danger Index National Fire Danger Rating System (US) References Sources Attribution External links Current global map of hotspots (fires, volcanos, flare stacks), and fine particulates. Note that hotspot pixels do not indicate size. Articles containing video clips Emergency management Fire prevention Types of fire Natural disasters Pollution Wildfire ecology Weather lore

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HTC%20Wildfire%20S

HTC Wildfire S

The HTC Wildfire S is a smartphone developed by the HTC Corporation. The model was announced on 15 February 2011 at the Mobile World Congress and released in Europe three months later. On 14 August 2019, it was announced that the "HTC Wildfire" name had been licensed for use on the HTC Wildfire X, a phone manufactured by a third-party company and intended for the Indian market. Hardware and software HTC Wildfire S is considered to be an update of 2010's HTC Wildfire, having a newer, 600 MHz processor by Qualcomm, support for the faster Bluetooth 3.0 specification, and a screen with double the resolution (HVGA, updated from QVGA). The Wildfire S includes a TFT LCD capacitive touchscreen and a 5-megapixel camera. Unlike its predecessor, the Wildfire S has no trackball or trackpad. The device runs on Android 2.3.5 Gingerbread, and comes with an upgrade to HTC's Sense UI. However, by rooting, the user is able to install CyanogenMod versions of Android 4.0, 4.1 and even 4.4. Availability In the United Kingdom, the Wildfire S is available from several carriers, including 3 (Hutchison 3G), Vodafone, Orange, Tesco Mobile, T-Mobile and O2. In the United States, it is available through carriers US Cellular, T-Mobile, Virgin Mobile USA and MetroPCS; in Canada through Bell Canada and Virgin Mobile Canada; in Australia through Telstra; in New Zealand through Telecom New Zealand; and in India it is available in open market. In Ireland, it is available through networks Meteor, eMobile, Vodafone, O2, 3 (Hutchison 3G), and Tesco Mobile. In Bulgaria, it is available through networks Mobiltel, GLOBUL and Vivacom. In Pakistan, it is available throughout in market and uses networks are Telenor, Ufone, Jazz and Zong. See also Comparison of smartphones Galaxy Nexus HTC Sense References External links Official Page Android (operating system) devices HTC smartphones Mobile phones introduced in 2011 Discontinued smartphones Mobile phones with user-replaceable battery

31528575

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2011%20Texas%20wildfires

2011 Texas wildfires

The 2011 Texas wildfires were a series of destructive wildfires in Texas that occurred in the 2011 fire season. During 2011 in Texas, around 31,453 fires had burned (about double the previous record), 2,947 homes (1,939 of which were destroyed over the Labor Day weekend), and over 2,700 other structures. 47.3% of all acreage burned in the United States in 2011 was burned in Texas. The fires had been particularly severe due to the 2011 Southern US drought that covered the state, and was exacerbated by the unusual convergence of strong winds, unseasonably warm temperatures, and low humidity. Timber lost to drought and wildfire in 2011 could have produced $1.6 billion worth of products, resulting in a $3.4 billion economic impact in East Texas. Firefighters from more than forty-three states were involved in combating the fires. Two firefighters were killed. Eastland volunteer firefighter Gregory M. Simmons, 51, died April 15 while battling a blaze Friday afternoon near Eastland. Cactus volunteer firefighter Elias Jaquez died April 20 from injuries sustained while fighting a blaze April 9 in Moore County. On Sunday, September 4, 2011, a forest fire known as the Bastrop County Complex Fire engulfed rural areas to the east Bastrop, Texas, including the Tahitian Village development, and by September 30 had destroyed 1,645 homes, burned 34,068 acres, and killed two people. This fire is now regarded as the most catastrophic wildfire in Texas history. Texas Governor Rick Perry declared a State of Disaster starting on December 21, 2010, and renewed the proclamation every month. On April 16, 2011, Perry asked that President Barack Obama declare 252 of 254 Texas counties as disaster areas due to wildfires and wildfire danger; the request was partially approved on July 1, 2011. Critics of the governor's relief efforts point to his budget cuts to the Texas Forest Service which provides a first line of defense against wildfires. Overall, wildfires in Texas during 2011 caused $510.927 million in damages and caused six fatalities, though an additional 62 people were injured. Background The 2010 Texas wildfire season began on November 15. A La Niña weather pattern that began in the summer of 2010 brought widespread drought to Texas. The percentage of exceptional drought in the state was the highest since the United States Drought Monitor began tracking the data in 2000. A pattern of troughs from the Pacific Northwest brought strong winds over the plains. These weather conditions coupled with an above normal grass fuel loading created conditions for an active fire season. Notable fires This is a list of known Texas wildfires occurring in 2011 that reached a size greater than 10,000 acres (40 km2) and/or caused significant destruction in residential areas. Bastrop County Complex Due to the ongoing exceptional drought conditions in most of Texas and the high winds brought to the state by Tropical Storm Lee, a series of wildfires flared up over Labor Day weekend and continued into the following week. The largest and most destructive was what is now known as the Bastrop County Complex. At approximately 3:00 p.m. (CDT) on September 4, two fires started north of Bastrop State Park in the communities of Circle D-KC Estates and Taihitan Village. The likely cause of the blaze was sparks from electric power lines. 30 mph gusts of wind apparently toppled trees which tumbled into electrical lines at two locations, creating sparks that fell onto and ignited the dry grass and leaf litter below. The fire was exacerbated by the outflow of Tropical Storm Lee in conjunction with exceptional drought. The fire quickly spread, engulfing 400 homes. Multiple areas and locales were evacuated, including the Bastrop Animal Shelter, Bastrop State Park (more than half of which was burned), and other communities affected by the fire. By 7:30 PM on September 5, 2011, the fire had burned about 25,000 acres and 500 homes. Winds began to calm the evening of September 5, but the fire still had no containment by the evening of September 6. By September 11, 1,554 homes had been destroyed. By October 1, the fire had reached 98% containment but had burned a total of 34,068 acres and 1,645 homes, making it the most destructive fire in Texas history. At 8:00 PM on October 10, the fire was declared 100% contained. Bear Creek Fire On September 4, the largest fire in East Texas History began. Scorching more than 43,000 acres in Cass and Marion Counties. The fire took over 5 days to get under control involving numerous houses, and property. Multiple fire departments aided in the suppression efforts. A total of 91 structures were burned by the wildfire, amassing a damage toll of $6 million. Colorado County Fire On September 4, a fire started in Mentz, a rural community about northeast of Columbus, TX. The fire consumed 1800 acres, 11 homes, 40 outbuildings, and about 38 vehicles. The fire was contained a few days later. Cooper Mountain Ranch Fire Following a period of gusty conditions in mid-April, thunderstorms occurring between April 10–11 over West Texas initiated several wildfires. Among these was the Cooper Mountain Ranch Fire, which began from a lightning strike in south of Clairemont in southern Kent County. The fire ultimately spread to Fisher, Scurry, and Stonewall counties. On April 14, the city of Rotan was evacuated as the fire spread east, with one home destroyed near the county line between Kent and Stonewall counties; residents of Rotan returned to their homes after a few hours. A change in the winds to northerly caused the fire to spread south towards Camp Springs on April 18. The fire was eventually contained on April 22 after burning of grassland, resulting in $1.26 million in economic losses and the destruction of 350 utility poles. It was the sixth largest wildfire in Texas history. FEMA approved $1.35 million in assistance grants as a result of the fire. Crockett Fires Fires burned between Texas 7 and US 287 and County Road 4505 but later jumped across to CR 4529. The cause of this fire is unknown. Another fire originally started in Anderson County but moved into Houston County near the Percilla Community. This fire was apparently caused by a downed power line. Deaton Cole Fire The grass fire in Val Verde County, southwest of Ozona burned . The fire started on April 25 and the cause is unknown. The fire was controlled on May 10. Delhi Fire On September 4, a fire began near Jeddo, Texas in Caldwell County. The next day, 6 homes were burned, including . Dickens Complex The Dickens Complex of fires in Dickens County consisted of the Edwards, Batch Camp, South Camp, and Afton fires. The fires were started by lightning strikes on May 7. The fires were contained on May 15 after burning . Encino Fire The Encino Fire was located South of San Angelo. It started from a lightning strike during a thunderstorm. The fire consumed over but destroyed no buildings. Moore Fire (Gladewater) This fire, which was described by a longtime sheriff as "the fastest moving fire he had ever seen", burned 1,400 acres, destroying six houses and many barns. Outbuildings and pieces of equipment were also lost. More tragically, 2 fatalities occurred in a mobile home, when a mother and her 18-month-old daughter were unable to escape the fast moving blaze. A house mate was injured but was able to escape the blaze. The fires moved so quickly due to the extremely dry conditions and the high winds, sometimes reaching 40 mph. The fire was later extinguished despite state firefighting resources being stretched to their limits. Griffith League Scout Ranch Fire This fire started around 2 pm on October 4, 2011, at Oak Hill Cemetery Road, east of FM 2336, near the Griffith League Scout Ranch. It grew to 100 acres within two hours, 1,000 acres by nightfall. The outbreak was 25% contained by 8:30pm following the efforts of seven bulldozers and over 30 fire trucks with assistance from four aircraft that dumped 90,000 gallons of fire retardant onto the blaze. As of the morning of October 5, 50 homes had been evacuated. The 5,000-acre ranch had already lost approximately 1,000 acres to fire on September 4 and 5. 350 acres had burned previously in a wildfire on August 21, 2010. Horseshoe Fire On August 15, 2011, a wildfire broke out in central Leander, Texas. 189 homes in the surrounding area were immediately evacuated. The fire burned 30 acres in total and raced through a mobile-home neighborhood, destroying 15 homes and multiple vehicles. Since it broke out on Horseshoe Drive, it is known as the Horseshoe Fire. This was the first of two destructive fires Leander experienced within three weeks, the second being the Moonglow Fire. Iron Mountain Fire The cause of the Iron Mountain Fire is unknown. The fire started on May 9 in Brewster County about east of Alpine eventually getting to within of the town. The fire burned over . Moonglow Fire On September 5, a wildfire broke out in the Mason Creek North subdivision (on Moonglow Drive) in Leander. Police declared the cause to be arson. The fire destroyed 11 homes and damaged nine. The Moonglow fire was the second destructive wildfire Leander had experienced within three weeks, leading the Leander City Council to declare the city a disaster area shortly thereafter. Pedernales Bend Fire The Pedernales Bend Fire (also known as the Spicewood fire and Pedernales Fire One) was a fire that began on September 4 near Lake Travis. Fanned by strong winds, the fire quickly grew, forcing residents in a radius of the fire to evacuate the area. By the end of the day, the fire was estimated to have engulfed . The next day, the fire already destroyed 20 homes and moved across the Pedernales River, continuing to burn in Hays County. Most of the fire moved to the west of the river, where it destroyed an additional 65 structures and engulfed a total of . The fire also cut power from 545 homes. However, the growing fire slowed down as it was quickly contained, and on September 7, the fire was completely contained. In total, 65 structures were destroyed, including 34 homes. The fire burned in total. Possum Kingdom Complex The Possum Kingdom Complex is a grouping of four wildfires that has consumed about in Stephens, Young and Palo Pinto counties. The complex consists of the Possum Kingdom West Fire (90,000 acres), Possum Kingdom East Fire , Hohertz Fire and Jackson Ranch Fire . The fire destroyed 166 homes and two churches. 600 more homes were threatened. Possum Kingdom State Park was closed on April 15. Ninety percent of the park was involved in the fire. 450 firefighters, three helitankers and three helicopters fought the fire along a fire line. On August 30, 2011, another outbreak of wildfires ravaged the Possum Kingdom Lake area, continuing well into September and destroying 39 homes by the time of containment. Riley Road Fire The Riley Road Fire started on September 5 in Grimes County and quickly spread South with the aid of high winds crossing over into Waller County. Within three days, the fire had scorched at least 12,500 acres and destroyed over 100 homes in Grimes, Montgomery and Waller counties. By September 10, the fire had been 100% contained and burned out with no further damage. Rock House Fire The Rock House Fire began on April 9 west of Marfa. An electrical short in an abandoned building is believed to have started the fire. The fire burned more than across Presidio and Jeff Davis counties. The fire destroyed 24 homes and two businesses, and killed herds of cattle and 4 horses. On April 10, Davis Mountains State Park was closed indefinitely due to the proximity of the fire. The park was used as a staging and camping area for firefighters for the duration of the fire. Texas State Highway 118 was also closed at several times during the fire. Scenic Brook Fire On the morning of April 17, Michael Weathers, a homeless man, started a campfire to cook his breakfast. He later left the campfire unattended, and the hot coals started a fire that spread into the Scenic Brook, Austin, Texas neighborhood in Austin. Two C-130 airplanes dispersed fire retardant chemicals. Police and EMS helicopters equipped with buckets dropped water on the blaze. The fire covered about , destroyed 11 homes and damaged 10 others. Weathers was arrested and charged with arson. Schwartz Fire The Schwartz Fire started May 7 and the cause is still under investigation. Conditions optimal for wildfires were in place at the time of the fire with temperatures over , relative humidity values near 5 percent, and gusts as strong as . The fire began east of Marathon in Brewster County and burned about . Two structures were directly threatened by the fire and another sixteen indirectly, but none structures were lost. Swenson Fire Sparks from a cutting torch started the Swenson Fire on April 6 near Aspermont and burned in King, Knox, and Stonewall counties but caused minimal structure damage. Two unoccupied houses were lost. White Hat Fire The White Hat Fire was started during the morning hours of June 20 about west of Blackwell, Texas in Nolan County. Bulldozers, fire engines, and heavy tankers were sent to handle the fire. However, towards the end of the day, no containment of the fire was reported, and it had already destroyed 7 houses and had enlarged to a size greater than . Soon, residents east of the community of Maryneal would be evacuated. The next day, the fire continued to spread, reaching a size of and burning down an additional 5 structures. 100 firefighters were sent to battle the flames. On June 22, progress was made and the fire was 50% contained. Due to lower winds the next day, the fire decreased and became 70% contained, but it had already burned of land and charred 35 homes. The fire continued to decrease in size over the next days. On June 27, the fire was declared fully contained after burning . Wildcat Fire The Wildcat Fire started on April 11 at approximately 0030 from a lightning strike in southern Coke County west of Robert Lee. The fire was held within a 30-acre area until approximately 1630 on April 14. A wind shift coupled with increased wind speeds and rough terrain, enabled the fire to breach established fire lines. Forty mph winds pushed the fire east, reaching TX Hwy 208, before shifting to the south. The flame front was estimated to move at 400 ft per minute. Winds later shifted and pushed fire south. Local officials alerted residents of Grape Creek and Quail Valley, small communities north of San Angelo, to prepare for evacuation. By April 16, the winds again shifted and moved the fire north towards Robert Lee, forcing evacuations of the Edith community, and houses along both FM 2034 and Hwy 208 Texas State Highway 208. On April 17, Bronte was under a recommended evacuation, but the evacuation notice expired the same day. By April 18, the fire burned an estimated , with a 10% containment, then the same day a confirmed 30% containment was stated. On April 21, the fire was at 75% containment, after burning . Despite several structures being lost, mostly limited to outbuildings, isolated barns, and hunters' camps, the fire claimed only one unoccupied home. Wildfire summary The following is a list of fires that burned more than , or produced significant structural damage or loss of life. Volunteers respond Nearly 35,000 Texans are members of the state's 1,497 fully volunteer fire departments (VFDs) and 292 combined volunteer and paid departments. Those combination departments have about 6,200 paid firefighters, while the state's 139 fully paid departments have more than 19,500 firefighters primarily focused on protecting the state's municipalities, according to Texas Forest Service records. While some state and federal grant funding is available for fire departments, most fire protection is funded at a local level through taxation or donations. See also Days of Prayer for Rain in the State of Texas References External links United States Drought Monitor Texas Wildfire Review: Did Bureaucracy Prevent a Timely Response?: Field Hearing before the Subcommittee on Oversight, Investigations, and Management of the Committee on Homeland Security, House of Representatives, One Hundred Twelfth Congress, First Session, October 17, 2011 Texas, 2011 Wildfires in Texas Arson in Texas 2011 in Texas 2011 wildfires in the United States

31881728

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2011%20Slave%20Lake%20wildfire

2011 Slave Lake wildfire

A large wildfire burned through Slave Lake, Alberta, Canada and its surrounding area from May 14 to 16, 2011. The conflagration, which originated outside of town as a forest fire, was quickly pushed past fire barriers designed to protect the town by winds. The fire forced the complete evacuation of Slave Lake's 7,000 residents—considered the largest such displacement in the province's history at the time—to the nearby towns of Athabasca and Westlock, as well as the provincial capital of Edmonton. No casualties were reported amongst the town's population, but a pilot was killed when his helicopter crashed while he was battling the fires around the community. The fire destroyed roughly one-third of Slave Lake; 374 properties were destroyed and 52 damaged in the town, and another 59 were destroyed and 32 damaged in the surrounding Municipal District of Lesser Slave River No. 124, leaving 732 residents homeless. The town hall was completely gutted by the fire, as was the library and radio station. The hospital, Royal Canadian Mounted Police (RCMP) station and schools remained standing, however. Insurable damage was estimated at million, making it the second costliest insured disaster in the country's history at the time. An RCMP investigation concluded that the cause of the fire was arson; however, no arrests were made. The disaster prompted an outpouring of support from across the province, and across Canada. The Canadian Red Cross and disaster relief agencies in Edmonton were inundated with donations—enough that they asked people to no longer make donations directly at the evacuation centres. ATB Financial offered to defer mortgage and loan payments for affected residents, while a Calgary-based rental company offered rental suites in Edmonton to displaced residents free of charge for three months. The provincial government promised $50 million in immediate aid to the town. 2011 fire season Wildfires are common in Canada. Approximately 8,000 such fires occur every year across the country, and collectively burn 2.5 million hectares of land. Such fires in Alberta usually occur in remote areas and rarely threaten populated settlements. The last fire to seriously affect a community in Alberta destroyed 59 buildings in the hamlet of Chisholm in 2001. The Slave Lake area has been threatened by fires in the past. Communities on the eastern outskirts of town were evacuated in 2001 by the approach of the Chisholm fire, while the town was saved from destruction by change in the winds in 1968. The province faced unusually dry conditions and high winds throughout the spring, leading to extreme risk of fire across much of the province. By mid-May, over 100 wildfires were burning across the province, including 23 that were considered out of control. Over had been burned, and the majority of the fires were in the Lesser Slave Lake area, where 15 fires were burning out of control. Nearly 1100 firefighters were battling the blazes across the country. As a consequence of the fire conditions, the provincial government enacted a complete fire ban across the entire province ahead of the Victoria Day long weekend; it was only the second time in history the government had issued such an order. The fire that struck Slave Lake started east of town around 1:30 pm on Saturday, May 14, and grew to within three hours. An evacuation order was issued for 250 people who lived in the area, while a second fire burning west of Slave Lake, near the hamlet of Wagner, prompted provincial officials to order the evacuation of 800–900 people from that area. Displaced residents were sent to Slave Lake, where the town's fire chief initially expressed confidence that the town itself was not in serious danger, though Slave Lake declared a local state of emergency on Saturday night. Evacuation By 2:00 pm on May 15, the province had declared the fire situation around Slave Lake to be a level three emergency, and announced that states of emergency existed in both the town, and the surrounding Municipal District of Lesser Slave River No. 124. The local radio station, Lake-FM, provided continuous updates to the community as the fires approached town. Officials remained hopeful that Slave Lake would be spared; by mid-afternoon, they felt they were gaining control of the fires. However, a change in the winds, gusting to up to , pushed the conflagrations past fire breaks and into town a short time later. Residents began to evacuate Slave Lake in the late afternoon as provincial officials re-opened Highway 2 eastbound to allow residents to leave. Efforts to encourage residents to leave were slowed by power failures that knocked Lake FM off the air. By 9:30 pm, the province declared a level four emergency—the highest on its scale, and the first such declaration since 2005—and a half an hour later, a mandatory evacuation was ordered for all residents of Slave Lake. Over 7,000 people fled east and south to the neighbouring towns of Athabasca and Westlock, as well as the provincial capital of Edmonton, south. It was said to be the largest such displacement in Alberta's history at the time. By morning on May 17, officials announced that 95% of the town's residents had been evacuated and that RCMP officers were conducting searches for any residents who stayed behind. Only essential staff and firefighters remained in the community. The RCMP dispatched personnel from neighbouring detachments to bolster Slave Lake's usual 20 officer contingent while additional firefighters were sent to Slave Lake from across the province to support the 120 already battling the blazes in the town. Among the deployments were 100 firefighters, nine trucks and a heavy urban search and rescue team from Calgary. Some residents questioned whether town officials acted fast enough to evacuate the town, noting that the order to leave was made after people had already begun to flee. Mayor Karina Pillay-Kinnee defended the actions of officials, noting that "this is a first-time experience for us. I think it's an unusual situation. We had fires on either end of the community. What I'm thankful for at this point is we have no loss of life." Damage As residents fled Slave Lake, the winds sent burning embers overhead which ignited homes and businesses. Evacuees described the horizon as being "nothing but red", noting that thick smoke had already engulfed the town as they left town. One resident said "it looked like hell". Firefighters attempted a "last stand" in the east part of town, but were quickly overwhelmed by the heat and burning embers thrown forward by the blaze. The fire ravaged the southeast part of town, destroying half the buildings in the area, while a second fire struck the northwest part of Slave Lake. The incident commander described it as a firestorm, stating that "the nature of which is unprecedented. The speed it was moving, the heat it was generating, the devastation, is second to none." He praised the efforts of firefighters who chose to demolish some homes in advance of the fire, a decision he said saved many homes in the town. In addition to hundreds of houses, the town hall, library, radio station and a mall were destroyed, as were two churches. However the hospital, RCMP station and schools remained standing. In total, the fire destroyed roughly one-third of Slave Lake; 374 properties were destroyed and 52 damaged in the town proper, and another 59 were destroyed and 32 damaged in the surrounding area. 732 people were left homeless as a result. Insurable damage caused by the fire was estimated at over million. It was the second costliest disaster in Canadian history, at the time, topped only by the North American ice storm of 1998 which caused $1.8 billion in damages, adjusted for inflation to 2011 dollars. No casualties were reported amongst Slave Lake residents as a result of the fire, but a pilot was killed when his helicopter crashed while battling the blaze. Jean-Luc Deba, an experienced pilot from Montreal, died in the crash at Canyon Creek, west of Slave Lake. Aftermath Several days after the fire, residents had little idea of whether their homes and businesses still stood. By May 19, Mayor Karina Pillay-Kinnee met with evacuees, informing them that recovery efforts had begun, but that residents would not be able to return to Slave Lake until power, gas, phone service and access to drinkable water was restored. By May 20, a map of damaged areas was released. A week after the fire ravaged the town, provincial officials organized buses from the evacuation centres to allow residents to tour the damage. Few residents took advantage of the opportunity, but those that did felt the tour offered a sense of closure. Ten days after the town was evacuated, the first residents were allowed to return as part of a four-phase plan. Approximately 100 workers in essential service areas, along with their families, were allowed to return on May 25. Their return followed the restoration of critical infrastructure including power, water supply, telephone, police and fire services. It was expected the town's remaining residents would begin to return within days, and while some residents expressed no plans on returning to their former homes, many looked forward to doing their part to help rebuild their community. A local developer suggested it would be months before the community could even begin to rebuild homes lost in the fire, Local home builders were expected to be overwhelmed by the task, while Slave Lake's remote location posed additional challenges to the rebuild process, including questions of where workers brought in to help rebuild the town would be housed. By early July, drought conditions in northern Alberta changed to a series of floods that prompted further evacuations of at least 65 residents. Later, a book, The Sky was on Fire: Slave Lake's Story of Disaster, Exodus and New Beginnings, written by Len and Nicola Ramsey, Joe McWilliams, and MJ Kristoff, was produced containing many of the victims and residents experiences of the fire. Investigation In November 2011, the RCMP concluded a five and a half month investigation into the cause of the fire. After eliminating other causes, including lightning, the RCMP and the Alberta government declared that the fire was deliberately set. Sustainable Resources Minister Frank Oberle stated, “the probable cause of the fire that burned more than 400 homes and other structures in Slave Lake was arson.” Though officials have determined the place and method of ignition, they did not name any suspects. With $700 million in damages caused by the fire, the case is the largest arson investigation in Canadian history in terms of dollar value. The case is not being handled by the Slave Lake RCMP detachment; as 11 officers lost their homes, an outside investigative team was assigned for reasons of objectivity. Response Immediately following the fire, the Alberta government promised $50 million in aid to the town. Half of that was provided as immediate relief for residents, including $9 million to pay for costs incurred during the evacuation. Another $15 million was set aside for residents without adequate insurance coverage or with limited financial capability, and would cover all housing costs for such people until August. Prime Minister Stephen Harper and Premier Ed Stelmach toured the town via helicopter and met with front-line firefighters a week after the fire. Following the tour, Harper promised additional aid would be forthcoming from the federal government. Albertans responded to the disaster with material and financial support. The Canadian Red Cross and disaster relief agencies in Edmonton were inundated with material donations—enough that they asked people to no longer make material donations directly at the evacuation centres. Communities across the province launched support drives to collect necessary supplies for evacuees. Grade school students organized fundraising drives, and community groups and businesses were overwhelmed by the public response. Businesses across the province also stepped forward to help. Among them, ATB Financial offered to defer mortgage and loan payments for affected residents, while a Calgary-based rental company offered 50 rental suites in Edmonton to displaced residents free of charge for three months. Athabasca University made space available for limited school classes to resume for evacuated students, Insurance companies quickly set up operations near evacuation centres to assist residents with any questions or concerns. A benefit concert held in Edmonton and televised by the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation in mid June raised $150,000 for the Red Cross. Performers included Tom Jackson, George Canyon, and Johnny Reid. A second benefit held over the Canada Day long weekend in Slave Lake itself hoped to raise an additional $100,000. The three-day event, which averaged 3,000–5,000 fans per day, was headlined by Ashley MacIsaac, Dwight Yoakam, and The Stampeders and offered the community's residents an opportunity to relax in the midst of rebuilding efforts. On July 6, the Duke and Duchess of Cambridge (Prince William and Catherine), visited the town to offer encouragement to residents and rebuilding efforts. Slave Lake residents expressed gratitude towards those who offered support to the community, even as it continued to struggle through the aftermath and rebuilding efforts weeks later. On August 3, the Government of Alberta announced an additional $189 million in funding for rebuilding and disaster response in the Slave Lake area. The funding was allocated to: a regional wildfire recovery plan; a disaster recovery program for the town, the municipal district, the Hamlet of Red Earth Creek, the Gift Lake Metis Settlement, and numerous nearby First Nations reserves; and an interim housing project to accommodate 350 interim homes for displaced residents and families of the town and the municipal district. On September 14, a second benefit concert, headlined by Paul Brandt and featuring High Valley, was held at the Winspear Centre in Edmonton. Proceeds from the concert went to replacing the books at the Slave Lake Regional Library and a project in Haiti. See also 2013 Alberta floods 2016 Fort McMurray wildfire List of fires in Canada References 2011 crimes in Canada 2011 wildfires in Canada 2011 in Alberta 2011 wildfires May 2011 crimes May 2011 events in Canada Arson in Canada Municipal District of Lesser Slave River No. 124 2011 Wildfires caused by arson

32045629

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20Arizona%20wildfires

List of Arizona wildfires

This is a list of known wildfires in Arizona. Statistics Notable fires Lesser known fires References External links National Interagency Fire Center InciWeb - Arizona Incidents Southwest Coordination Center Arizona Interagency Wildfire Prevention US Forest Service Fire Restrictions - Arizona Public Lands Information Center - Arizona Fire News Coconino NF fire history web map Arizona Wildfires

33272882

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wildfire%20%28The%20Walking%20Dead%29

Wildfire (The Walking Dead)

"Wildfire" is the fifth and penultimate episode of the first season of the post-apocalyptic horror television series The Walking Dead. It originally aired on AMC in the United States on November 28, 2010. The episode was written by Glen Mazzara and directed by Ernest Dickerson. In the episode, the survivors deal with the aftermath of the walker attack, and decide to move to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention facilities, hoping to find a cure for an infected Jim (Andrew Rothenberg). Meanwhile, Shane Walsh (Jon Bernthal), finding his leadership position challenged by Rick Grimes (Andrew Lincoln), succumbs to his inner demons. Plot The survivors deal with the aftermath of the zombie attack, burying their dead and burning the bodies of the zombies. Andrea stays with the body of Amy, apologizing for not spending more time with her, before the body starts to re-animate and she shoots it in the head. As they reassess their situation, Jim reveals he was bitten in the attack, and while Daryl Dixon wants to kill him before he turns, Rick Grimes stops him, telling him they don't kill the living. Daryl points out the hypocrisy after Rick points a gun at him. Fearing the camp is no longer safe, Rick suggests the group travel to the CDC facility in Druid Hills, Georgia where they may have a cure. Shane does not believe it is safe, and tries to convince Lori, Rick's wife, to change Rick's mind, but she refuses. Shane, still resenting Rick's reappearance disrupting his relationship with Lori, attempts to shoot Rick but stops when Dale spots him. The camp packs up, with Rick radioing Morgan Jones that Atlanta is not safe. Morales and his family elect to go on their own towards Birmingham, and Rick gives them some of the weapons and supplies. The remainder of the survivors heads to the CDC. En route, as they fix Dale's RV, Jim starts to feel as if he is about to turn and asks to be left behind; the group leaves him under a tree by the road. At the CDC, a lone scientist, Edwin Jenner, is sampling tissue that is part of the "Wildfire" epidemic that has lasted for over 190 days. During one test, his biohazard protection suit is damaged, and he quickly takes emergency precautions, which destroy the remaining samples he has to study. With no further means to proceed, Jenner contemplates suicide when he sees Rick's group appear outside the sealed building. Rick sees surveillance cameras watching them, and demands they be let in before an approaching horde of zombies reach them. Jenner triggers the external doors, allowing Rick's group in to safety. Production "Wildfire" was directed by Ernest Dickerson and written by Glen Mazzara. Actor Noah Emmerich made a guest appearance on the show, portraying the character of Edwin Jenner, one of the few remaining medical personnel dedicated to eradicating the virus. Emmerich's appearance was formally announced in November 2010. Creator Frank Darabont foreshadowed the development of the episode the same month, alongside predecessor "Vatos" and the first season finale, "TS-19". "Before it's all said and done, the opinions and actions of the group are divided." Producer Gale Anne Hurd added, "Stakes are higher, dissension develops, rivalries intensify." Principal photography for "Wildfire" transpired at the Cobb Energy Performing Arts Centre, which was depicted as the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Producers of the show were not allowed to photograph the interior of the actual buildings as part of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention as a point of reference due to its high security. As opposed to the successive episode, where filming mostly took place inside of the Cobb Energy Performing Arts Centre, production for "Wildfire" occurred outside of the building. Darabont conceived the idea of exploring into the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, as its headquarters are in close proximity to Atlanta. Although the location was not featured in the comics of the same name, Kirkman was content with the idea, and stated that Darabont was looking to diverge from the comics in lieu of a literal interpretation. "Frank has always maintained that the comic book is a path but we’re not stuck on it. If a story idea comes up, we’ll leave the path for an episode or two, but we’ll always come back to it," he said. In "Wildfire", Andrea shoots her deceased sister Amy after she slowly resurrected into a walker. Greg Nicotero, the special effect director for The Walking Dead, made Bell wear contact lenses that were less harsh in appearance, as he wanted an emotional connection to resonate between the characters. Bell admitted that she was perplexed on how to approach the scene. "I laid down on the wood chips and just sort of stared at the sky and staring at my sister's face," explained Bell. "All of these thoughts and emotions started flooding in, so I was really lucky." Jim, played by Andrew Rothenberg, also died in this episode, bitten by a walker, and is abandoned. His death is considered the 35th most important death in the series. Adam Minarovich played Ed, Carol's husband and first victim of the series. It is the last appearance of Morales, played by Juan Pareja, and his family (Maddie Lomax and Noah Lomax as Eliza and Louis Morales, his children, and Viviana Chavez as Miranda Morales, his spouse), until his return in the season 8 episode 2 named The Damned. Bear McCreary composed fewer scores in "Wildfire" in comparison to other episode of the series, putting an emphasis on silence, which McCreary felt that the music was more subtle when corresponding with silence. He found that as a result, the music was more effective because he was not adding sound "for the sake of being heard". "When you don't have ambient beds going through your whole score," he said, "it means that just the entrance of music has a lot more power. We really pushed the limits of how long can we go without music." Themes and cultural references Ideas relating to guilt recur throughout the episode. Proclaiming "Wildfire" as an installment "full of guilt trips", Dan Snierson of Entertainment Weekly explained that Rick Grimes and Andrea epitomized such themes given their situations. "Andrea feels guilty about 'not being there' for Amy—but is motivated towards a mercy. Shane made Rick feel bad for not being at the camp when the zombies attacked, and Lori didn't do much to make her husband feel better," Snierson stated. "She also told Rick she needs more 'certainties' from him than decisions made from hunch and instinct." A columnist for the same publication, Jeff Jensen stated that "Wildfire" was a commentary on humanity, and added that the episode demonstrated "the need for the group to honor the departed" so they could identify with their humanity. The title of the episode is an homage to Michael Crichton's The Andromeda Strain, which also involves studying a pathogen in an underground laboratory. Reception Critical response Leonard Pierce of The A.V. Club gave it a grade of A− on a F to A scale, calling the episode "a very good one, gripping as hell and maybe my favorite episode of the season so far." He also complimented the directing of Ernest Dickerson, saying he "provided some fantastic shot set-ups and used the 16mm camera better than anyone has so far." Overall, he commented, "The episode provided a lot of emotional drama, and while it was somewhat light on zombie action, it did deliver a huge rush of action thrills at the end. It's stripping down the characters to the point where their relationships are becoming more meaningful, and it's introduced a real wild card at just the right time." Eric Goldman of IGN rated the episode 8 out of 10. Ratings Upon its initial broadcast on November 28, 2010, "Wildfire" was watched by 5.56 million viewers, which increased in viewership from the previous episode. At the time, it was the highest-rated episode of the series in both overall viewership and in the 18-49 demographic. References External links "Wildfire" at AMC 2010 American television episodes The Walking Dead (season 1) episodes Centers for Disease Control and Prevention in fiction Television episodes directed by Ernest Dickerson

33917473

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wildfire%20%281915%20film%29

Wildfire (1915 film)

Wildfire is a 1915 silent drama film produced by the Shuberts and distributed by World Pictures. It is based on the 1908 Broadway play Wildfire by George V. Hobart and George Broadhurst. The play had starred the famous Lillian Russell, who, in a rare screen appearance, reprised her role here. It was remade in 1925 with Aileen Pringle. Surviving prints are missing the third reel and the ending. Prints and/or fragments were found in the Dawson Film Find in 1978. According to the American Film Institute catalog, this film was shot at the Peerless Studios. About 30% of the scenes were filmed in Charleston, South Carolina and at the nearly Palmetto Park race course. Plot John Keefe, a gambler, shoots and kills Robert Barrington in an argument over a card game. Keefe steals Barrington's papers and forges a bill of sale to himself for Barrington's stable of race horses back east. The stable includes the prize filly, Wildfire. Meanwhile, Barrington's daughters, Henrietta and Myrtle, are becoming worried about their father's long absence in the West. John Garrison, the sheriff of the town in which Barrington was killed, goes East to investigate. He suspects Keefe (now called John Duffy) and begins to build a case, causing Henrietta to become suspicious. Keefe, realizing that the game is almost up, tries to get Wildfire's jockey to throw the big race, but Henrietta saves the day and Wildfire wins. Cast Lillian Russell - Henrietta Barrington Leone Morgan - Myrtle Barrington, her sister Richard Morris - Robert W. Barrington W. H. Powers - Ralph Woodhurst Lionel Barrymore - John Keefe, gambler Glenn White - Sheriff John Garrison Riley Hatch - Matt Donovan (as William Riley Hatch) George Mack - Bud Walter Kendig - Marty Green James J. Gorman - Gorman William C. Chamberlain - Walker Ruby Rose - Betty James Jeffrey - Chappy Raster References External links lobby card 1915 films Silent American drama films American silent feature films American black-and-white films American films based on plays American horse racing films Films about gambling 1915 drama films World Film Company films Films shot at Peerless Studios Films directed by Edwin Middleton 1910s American films

33938064

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wildfire%20%281925%20film%29

Wildfire (1925 film)

Wildfire is a 1925 American silent drama film directed by T. Hayes Hunter. It was produced by Distinctive Productions, a company founded by George Arliss, and distributed by the Vitagraph Company of America. The film stars Aileen Pringle. The film is based on the successful 1908 play Wildfire that had starred Lillian Russell on Broadway and a young actor just starting out named Irving Cummings, later a silent director. The story had been filmed before in 1915 with Lillian Russell herself and Lionel Barrymore. Plot As described in a film magazine review, Claire Barrington falls heir to a famous racing stable with many debts, whose payment is dependent upon the sweepstakes in which the horse Wildfire is entered. John Duffy, her principal creditor, plots to throw the race to another horse, but Claire learns of the signal that would be used to alert the jockey and uses this to ensure Wildfire is triumphant. A charge of treachery made against John's enemy Garrison is proved false and Claire and Garrison become engaged. Cast Preservation status This film survives in the Library of Congress collection and at the UCLA Film and Television Archive. References External links 1925 films American silent feature films American films based on plays Remakes of American films Films directed by T. Hayes Hunter 1925 drama films Silent American drama films American black-and-white films Vitagraph Studios films 1920s American films

34688101

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wildfire%20emergency%20management

Wildfire emergency management

Wildfires are outdoor fires that occur in the wilderness or other vast spaces. Other common names associated with wildfires are brushfire and forest fire. Since wildfires can occur anywhere on the planet, except for Antarctica, they pose a threat to civilizations and wildlife alike. In terms of emergency management, wildfires can be particularly devastating. Given their ability to destroy large areas of entire ecosystems, there must be a contingency plan in effect to be as prepared as possible in case of a wildfire and to be adequately prepared to handle the aftermath of one as well. Emergency management has four distinct phases that create the management process. These phases are mitigation, preparation, response, and recovery. While each phase has a distinct role in the emergency management process, there are aspects of each that interconnect with others. A management process without any one of the four phases could be deemed incomplete and inadequate. Mitigation is easily defined as prevention. Preparedness is the act of changing behaviors or processes to reduce the impact a disaster may have on a population or group. Response is assembling teams or units of emergency service to the area of disaster. Finally, recovery aims to restore the area affected by the disaster to its condition prior to the disaster. Introduction In order to exercise efficient emergency management, states susceptible to wildfires have collaborated to develop the Firewise Communities USA Recognition Program. The Firewise Communities Program focuses on reducing the loss of life and property, in terms of wildfires, by providing resources to allow communities to build responsibly in natural surroundings and assist one another in preparing for as well as recovering from wildfire. Communities enrolled in the Firewise Communities Program are bound to mitigation guidelines, which require firewise communities to develop and implement action plans to make properties safer from wildfire. Firewise communities organize community members in scheduled meetings to connect citizens to fire fighters, wildfire researchers, and state forestry personnel to educate citizens in terms of wildfire risks. Thereby, informing citizens of risk factors for the development of wildfires and how to prevent as well as prepare for a wildfire. In terms of recovery, firewise communities receive preferential treatment and tend to acquire additional resources and emergency assistance after a wildfire. To be eligible for a membership in the FireWise Communities Program, a community must verify susceptibility to wildfire by acquiring a wildfire risk assessment from the local fire department or forest service. Then, the community must form a firewise committee and action plan as well as contribute two dollars per capita toward firewise activities. Finally, the community submits a membership application to a firewise associate to be considered for recognition as a firewise community. There are currently 40 states with communities recognized as members of the Firewise Communities Program, including Arizona, California, Colorado, Nevada, Oklahoma, Texas, and North Carolina. Causes and effects of wildfires Wildfires are different from other fires in their size, speed, and unpredictability. Wildfires can occur due to natural or man-made elements. The four most common natural elements that can cause a wildfire are lightning, an eruption from a volcano, sparks from a rockfall, and spontaneous combustion. The most common man-made causes for wildfires include debris burning or other carelessness and arson. While not as common as arson or intentionally starting a fire, the improper disposal of a cigarette can cause a fire that could become uncontrollable. The most dominant cause of wildfires differs around the globe. Within the United States, the most common natural cause for wildfires has been found to be lightning strikes. Across the world, however, intentional ignition can be identified as the most common man-made cause for uncontrollable fires. According to the North Carolina Forest Service (NCFS), during 2010 there were 4,053 separate wildfires in North Carolina, which burnt a total of 14,095 acres. They report the cause of the largest number of wildfires for 2010 was the intentional burning of debris, which resulted in 1,617 wildfires. Incendiary substances, (such as gasoline or propane) were involved in another 805, and the use of machinery a further 435. NCFS also indicate 162 of the wildfires in 2010 were caused by smoking, 69 were caused by lightning, and 34 were the result of poorly managed campfires or other camping-related activities. Determining the causes of wildfires is integral to understanding how wildfires develop, which allows for the development of preventative measures to reduce wildfire vulnerability and minimize harmful effects. In terms of wildfires, there is often a vast amount of combustible materials to sustain a burn for en extended amount of time. Areas that are higher in moisture, such as dense forests, are less susceptible to burn as they have a natural provision of shade and humidity, which both can delay ignition. Wildfires have what are known as fronts which is the portion of the fire that meets new, unburned material, providing additional fuel for the oncoming fire. Wildfires can also move at an incredible pace; in forests and densely wooded areas, wildfires can burn at a rate of almost 7 miles per hour. Another threat of wildfires is their ability to jump. Embers and other ignited material such as leaves and other debris can be carried by the wind to an area that has not had any contact with the fire thus far. This could possibly ignite fire in a separate area, making the wildfire much more dangerous and more difficult to contain. Whether a wildfire can be contained depends on the intensity at which the fire burns. In the United States, wildfire intensity is measured by the rate at which the fire spreads and the degree of combusted heat produced by the flames. There are two types of fire intensity: reaction intensity, which is determined by the amount of heat released by the fire per unit of area burned and fire line intensity, which is determined by the length of the flames at the edge of the fire and height of scorch marks on affected trees. Higher scorch marks result from highly intense fires and typically cause trees to deteriorate significantly to the point of needing to be removed from the burned area. In addition to consuming trees, more intense wildfires tend to produce substantial amounts of smoke by consuming flammable material located on the ground. Flammable ground litter, also referred to as duff, that has less moisture contributes to the complete destruction of groundcover, which directly contributes to soil burning and erosion. The types and amount of ground litter directly influence the intensity of a wildfire. For instance, a wildfire requires 12 tons of pine litter to burn at high intensity whereas a high intensity wildfire would only require 7 tons of hardwood litter. However, wildfires require 60 tons of heavily chopped debris to burn at high intensity, but only require 40 tons of medium chopped debris for high intensity fuel. As explained further in the recovery section of this article, the burning intensity of a wildfire determines the extent of the damage caused by the fire and influences the recovery strategies utilized by emergency management personnel. Mitigation Mitigation efforts are taken to prevent events from becoming disasters and from preventing disasters from occurring completely. Mitigation is the efforts that are taken to ensure that the loss of life and property is limited in the event of a disaster. The North Carolina Forest Service (NCFS) emphasizes measures North Carolina residents and visitors can take in order to effectively prevent the development of man-made wildfires. NCFS personnel suggest not setting fires on dry, windy days because dry debris can ignite easily and lighter debris, such as grass and leaves, can be easily transported via the wind. Therefore, individuals are encouraged to avoid burning lighter debris, which could be better utilized as compost. Individuals are also encouraged to grind out cigarettes in dirt as opposed to on tree stumps or other debris and to dispose of cigarettes in vehicle ash trays. In addition to limited burning and disposal of burnt matter, NCFS suggest individuals monitor the intentional burning of acres and keep materials handy for eliminating the fire, such as water and shoveled dirt. Meanwhile, NCFS campfire guidelines indicate campers should construct small campfires with small amounts of debris and only add additional, larger debris as the fire grows. Campers are also instructed to maintain a 10-foot diameter clearing around the campfire to prevent the fire from spreading to surrounding debris and to never leave a campfire unattended. The campfire should be continually monitored with water and shoveled dirt handy in the event the fire becomes uncontrollable. Thereby, preventing minimal or contained fires from developing into devastating wildfires. The NCFS uses a database referred to as "signal 14" to monitor the daily fire activity in the state of North Carolina. The data contained within the signal 14 database is an estimation of the occurrence of wildfires throughout the state, with the exception of wildfires located on federal property. For instance, signal 14 statistics indicate approximately 1,252 wildfires occurred between January and April 2012, of which 45 occurred in April. The NCFS tracks wildfires in order to map out areas where wildfires occur and assess which areas are more prone to the development of wildfires. In terms of mapping wildfires, North Carolina is divided into twelve districts and each one contributes daily counts of any wildfires to the signal 14 database. Thereby, assisting the NCFS in determining the vulnerability, of each district, to wildfires. Preparation Like with most natural disasters and emergency situations, being prepared is crucial to saving life and property. Wildfires are a natural process of the forest and are ecological beneficial to forests and wildland areas. However, wildfires become a problem when they begin to move to areas that are populated with people. This generally happens in areas that have settlements and other built environments interacting with natural woodland areas or areas that have potential fuel for wildfires and these areas are called the wildland-urban interface (WUI). With this increase of people and property vulnerable to wildfires, policies and programs were developed to better prepare for wildfires. Most of the United States' policies for wildfires usually favored suppression of the fire over prevention with the U.S. Forest Service taking the lead role. However, over time, the states began to take a more active role in wildfire prevention. This switch from suppression to prevention and the increasing role of states in wildfire prevention was the product of increasing knowledge of wildfires and several Congressional acts, like the Cooperative Forestry Assistance Act (CFAA) of 1978, which provides matching grant money for rural fire departments for equipment and training. This increased role of state agencies in wildfire prevention would require an intergovernmental coordination to better deal with preparing and preventing wildfires. This intergovernmental coordination was the product of congressional legislation for equipment, training, and money for state and local fire crews and new federal environmental laws that require public comment and participation which leads to more state participation in the development, and implementation of wildfire management plans but federal agencies have a senior partner role in this relationship due to their experiences with wildfire suppression and the resources that they have available. The states role in this coordination soon changed because of the challenges that faces wildfire management in the wildland-urban Interface and the changes in land use policies that are better handled by organizations that focus on prevention style policies. This new intergovernmental coordination for wildfires now allows for local and state organizations with help develop policies for preparing and preventing wildfires. While living in the wildland-urban interface, homeowners must be prepared for wildfires that threaten their homes. People move to the wildland areas for many reasons. These reasons include the naturalness of the area, the aesthetics of the landscape, the wildlife, recreation, and for privacy. With people moving to these areas, there are some procedures and strategies that can be implemented to prepare for wildfires. These strategies include defensible space, planting of fire resistant vegetation, fire-retardant building materials, and sprinklers to slow the progression of the fire. While these measures will help the homeowners to prepare for wildfires, not all homeowners in the U.S. use all of these methods for the properties. Since the U.S. has a wide variety of ecosystems and unique people that live in different places, different parts of the county adopt different preparedness methods based on multiple factors of which includes the value of the forested landscape. An example of the different perceived effectiveness of these measures is that homeowners in Minnesota are more inclined to use water-based technology, While Florida homeowners have higher opinion on the efficacy of fire-retardant building materials. While these differences in perceived effectiveness of preparedness measures vary greatly, many homeowners regard vegetative fuel reduction as the most effective method for preparing for wildfires. To help homeowners prepare for wildfires, community support and organizations can help provide information, support, and training to help prepare for a wildfire event. For a community to create a preparedness strategy that will work efficiently against wildfires, four elements must be included in the foundation; these are landscape, government, citizens, and community. Landscape is a key element because it describes the local vegetative conditions that can fuel the wildfire, the location of the community which can motivate people to take responsibility for community wildfire preparedness, and the landscape promotes attachment to place which can promote a positive bond between the people and the land. The government is a key element because governmental representatives can collaborate with local officials for community preparedness and thereby opening the communities up to accessing funds, equipment, and training that would otherwise would not be available. Citizens are a key element in community preparedness because citizens apply their knowledge and skills to help the community and thereby empower their neighbors to help out in the preparedness process. The community is the final key element for community preparedness because it takes multiple people and collaborative groups to create to framework for community preparedness. By using these key elements, community can create a community preparedness program to better prepare themselves when wildfires threaten their community. Some issues that must be overcome for community preparedness are developing educational materials that reflect the intended audience and local community, building connections and networks between landowner and agencies, coordination between the different local, state, and federal agencies, and recognize the importance of individual responsibility for preparing their homes. Examples of community preparedness programs distributed throughout the U.S. includes: the Firefree program in Oregon, the Firesafe councils in California, and the nationwide Firewise Communities/USA. Each of these educational programs provides communities with information about how to prepare for wildfires. The goal of these programs is to create awareness about wildfire risk, knowledge about wildfire safety, and stewardship ethic beyond defensible space around individual homes. The United States is not only country that has wildfires as a natural disaster. Australia has had it fair share of wildfires that has caused significant effects like loss of life and property damage, an example of which includes the Ash Wednesday wildfire in 1983 which resulted in 47 deaths, and over 2,000 buildings destroyed. Through their experiences, the Australians developed their own approach to wildfire management. Their approach to wildfires is called "Stay and Defend or Leave Early". This approach was the result of investigations into the fatalities of major Australian wildfires. Research as found that most fatalities occur when people try to leave at the last minute and were the result of radiant heat exposure and vehicle accidents. Leaving at the last minute can be fatal because of the nature of wildfires and how they can cut off escape routes during their movement. Another fact found by these investigations is that homes catch fire not through direct contact of the flames but by embers landing inside or on the house. This knowledge of how buildings burn during wildfire events can help property owners to identify potential ignition sources and quickly handle the threat to their property. Response Wildfires can cause great widespread devastation in short time spans. According to the United States Fire Administration, wildfires were responsible for an average of 12.0 deaths per million populace in 2008. In North Carolina, the death rate was found to be 14.4 per million populace. However, despite their low responsibility in loss of life, wildfires are responsible for a massive amount of property loss. In 2009, the U.S. Fire Administration reported a loss of almost 6 million acres from a total of 78,792 wildfires. In the event of a wildfire, those who live in close proximity are advised by the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) to notify emergency services and, if time and safety permits, secure the following protections to their home before evacuating: Fill as many containers (pools, hot tubs, garbage cans, etc. with water). Place lawn sprinklers on the roof and near any above-ground fuel tanks. Wet the roof. Place a ladder against the side of the house. Turn on as many lights in the house as possible. This increases the houses's visibility through smoke. Close windows and doors but leave them unlocked for firefighters' easy access. Emergency response occurs among professionals as well as affected individuals. The first aspects of recovery include local agencies that are nearest to the disaster: firefighters, Emergency Medical Services, local police. Assessments must be conducted to determine the basic human needs that are present and efforts are taken to ensure these needs are met as quickly as possible. Assignments are delegated depending on the current needs - search and rescue, distribution of resources, immediate temporary relocation for displaced individuals. The Federal Fire Prevention Act enabled a national reporting system for fires around the country. This system is called the National Fire Incident Reporting System or NFIRS. The purpose of this system is to collect demographics, statistics, characteristics, and other pertinent information about fires which is compiled into a database. The goals of NFIRS are to assist state and local governments in developing a concrete method for reporting fires and developing a method of analyzing them. NFIRS was also created to provide national data on fires. By using NFIRS, emergency managers can access data about loss of life and property, as well as causes of the fires that caused such loss. While participation in NFIRS is voluntary, all 50 U.S. states and the District of Columbia participate. In the event of a wildfire, floods and landslides can often occur after the burn due to the drastic changes the fire can have caused in the terrain and the condition of the ground. Those who live within the proximity of a wildfire are susceptible to experiencing loss and damage from these events. Floods and landslides can occur long after the fire has ceased its burn; fires leave the ground charred with little to no vegetation, which normally absorbs rainfall. Without the vegetation, the rainwater can cause flash floods for up to five years after a wildfire. Flooding after a wildfire often includes the debris left behind after a fire, which can turn a flood into a mudslide, which can cause significant amounts of damage. In the summer of 2011, a wildfire burned in Pender County, North Carolina for almost three months before it was 100% contained. Named the "Juniper Road Fire", this wildfire that ravaged Pender County burned over 31,000 acres. Caused by a lightning strike on June 19, 2011, the fire spread quickly and despite having over 200 individuals fighting to contain it, the fire burned for an excess of almost three months. Fire crews, both local and distant, some from as far as Alaska, offered their aid to contain this wildfire. By focusing their attention on hot spots, the crews were able to contain more and more of the fire, though not nearly as quickly as they would have liked. Had the area not received a downpour of rain in early August, the fire may not have been contained when it was. Fire crews reported that the fire could have burned much longer had the rain not come. When crews determined that the fire was 92% contained, it had cost an estimate of $3.5 million to fight. Recovery Recovery, in terms of emergency management, refers to providing immediate support to a community affected by a disaster in order to repair the infrastructure and return the community to normal operation status. In terms of wildfires, post disaster recovery efforts following a wildfire begin with assessing fire damage to trees, shrubs, and soil. Wildfire recovery strategies are dependent on the intensity of the fire (scale of low to high), which determines the extent of fire damage and effective forest restoration. Low intensity fires consist of minimal damage to small trees without burning all of the forest and the majority of leaves still remain on the trees. Meanwhile, wildfires burning at moderate intensity result in the majority of the leaves and ground cover being consumed by flames while the largest, most healthy trees remain intact. The most devastating wildfires burn at high intensity and destroy 50 to 100% of the forest, including all the ground cover. Landowners, with woodlands affected by wildfire, are encouraged to map out the area of damaged property to assess the burn intensity and determine methods for restoring the area. Recovering from high intense fires requires additional measures to prevent soil erosion such as spreading slashed limbs and straw over soil to reduce contact with rain water. Landowners should be advised the risk of soil erosion increases when: the burn intensity is high all the ground cover is consumed rain falls rapidly the tree canopy is destroyed land is located downhill from other burned property the slopes are steep Landowners with these circumstances are advised to spread slashed wood and straw over the burned areas of ground to restrict the impact of rainwater, which allows water to disperse without contributing to erosion. Meanwhile, straw wattles, which are long strands of plastic netting, should be draped over slopes to prevent soil from slipping downhill. In addition to preventing soil slips, landowners are also advised to construct waterbars, which are mounds of rock or logs placed on the slope at a diagonal, to divert water off roads and trails. After soil is stabilized recovery efforts focus on removing heavily damaged debris from affected areas and salvaging less damaged lumber. To determine the extent of tree damage, the landowner needs to examine the bark, buds, and roots of burned trees to assess which trees can be salvaged and which trees need to be replaced. The bark on the tree protects the cambium, which transfers nutrients through the tree and thicker bark prevents high intensity fire from affecting the cambium. Thick, non-scorched bark is a sign of a tree with the possibility of survival. In addition to tree bark, trees with chances for survival have buds firm to the touch with bendable stems. Salvageable trees also have tree roots, which were not scorched because of depth in the ground. Landowners are encouraged to photograph any trees marked for removal as proof of assessed damage because trees lost due to wildfire can be written off on a federal income tax return as a casualty loss. Thereby, allowing landowners to claim up to $10,000 to invest in restoring the landscape. In order to restore areas damaged from wildfire, additional soil is dispersed while trees and shrubs are replanted. Landowners are encouraged to replant trees more resistant to wildfire. In addition to assessing damage to landscape, owners of property damaged by wildfire have to assess structural damage as well. Citizens are advised not to return home following a wildfire until fire personnel determine the area is safe. Individuals returning home following a wildfire are instructed to avoid down or exposed power lines and exercise caution when entering burnt areas because hot spots of burning debris may still be present. To minimize risk, owners are advised to spray down debris with water to put out any residual fire and wear closed masks to prevent inhaling dust from debris. Persons participating in removal of debris and clean up are recommended to wear thick soled shoes and leather gloves to protect themselves against exposure to harmful debris. Individuals are also encouraged to inspect their homes for embers that may have been left behind by the wildfire and may still be burning in the attic or other spaces. Homeowners are also advised to check circuit breakers in the event of a power outage following a wildfire because wildfires can cause breakers to short out. To reduce the risk of incendiary fires in the future, individuals are encouraged to inspect any propane or oil tanks that may have been exposed to the wildfire. Homeowners are also advised to test the structural support of the home and remove any trees determined to be unstable, which could easily fall on the home. Meanwhile, homeowners are encouraged to remove debris from the roof, gutters, and air conditioning units to prevent further fire ignitions. Oakland case study When a wildfire reaches areas that are populated with people, massive damage can occur. This combination of a wildfire threatening a major urban area was shown with the Oakland Wildfire of 1991. The Oakland Wildfire was started by a fire of suspicious origin on October 19, 1991. The fire became out of control on October 20 after the sparks from smouldering embers were carried by strong local winds. The fire began to grow after the embers landed on nearby vegetation and the wind began to move the flames in several directions at the same time. Soon, many homes in the neighborhoods of Hiller Highlands, Buckingham Place, and many others were threatened by the flames and fire crews began to scramble to put out the flames. The fire raged out of control until around 5 pm, when cooler temperatures and decreasing wind speeds slowed the progression of the fire. During the course of the event, the fire became a firestorm when the heat, gases, and the motion of the fire created its own weather conditions. The fire caused significant damage to Oakland and the surrounding areas. The fire killed 25 people, which included emergency personnel, destroyed 2,449 homes, and caused an estimated $1.5 billion in damage. The response to this fire was swift, however, the fire and winds made it difficult to extinguish. There were also several issues with the response. Communications broke down due to the intensity of the fire, rapid spread of the fire, and the communication systems were jammed due to the volume of telephone and radio traffic The narrow roads of the neighborhoods could not allow both fire crews and civilians to leave or enter the area, which resulted in vehicles being trapped for hours and caused the deaths of eleven victims. Evacuation also caused an issue due to high winds, heavy smoke, and narrow roads, which caused confusion for both fleeing residents and the fire crews. The evacuations were conducted on a one-on-one basis because the Emergency broadcast system was deemed inefficient for the task, this would result in many people being caught off guard by the fire. The combination of the weather factors, intensity of the fire, and the breakdown in communication and evacuation caused the response to the wildfire to be slow and ineffective until the change in weather conditions during the evening. This wildfire event shows the danger of fire in the wildland/urban interface. See also Pyrotron, a device designed to help firefighters better understand how to combat the rapid spread of wildfires remote monitoring of wildfires References External links NFPA Firewise Communities Firewise Landscapes Wildfire Management: Federal Funding and Related Statistics Congressional Research Service Emergency management Emergency management Emergency management

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2012%20Colorado%20wildfires

2012 Colorado wildfires

The 2012 Colorado wildfires were an unusually devastating series of Colorado wildfires, including several separate fires that occurred throughout June, July, and August 2012. At least 34,500 residents were evacuated in June. Causes Conditions were favorable for the wildfires. In 2011-2012, Colorado had an extremely dry winter, with only 13% of the average precipitation. The summer also saw temperatures near and in excess of across the state, and most of the state had relative humidity in the teens and single digits. Dry thunderstorms and arsonists were also possible contributing factors, though the sources of some of the fires have not yet been determined. Fires Little Sand Fire Started May 13, this 22,400-acre fire was located in the San Juan National Forest north of the Piedra River near Pagosa Springs, Colorado. Treasure fire Starting June 21, 2012, the Treasure fire (also called New Treasure fire), a forest fire about five miles north of Leadville in Lake County, burned 420 acres on US Forest Service land, but did not threaten any homes or structures. As of July 2, 2012, the Treasure fire was reported to be 100 percent contained. The fire's cause remains unknown. Weber fire The Weber fire has burned over 10,000 acres just southeast of Mancos in Montezuma County. It started on Friday, June 22, 2012. The fire resulted in evacuation orders for 140 households and pre-evacuation orders for 390 more. All evacuation orders were lifted Monday morning, July 2. As of that date, the Weber fire is reported to be 75 percent contained. Officials are targeting Thursday, July 5 for full containment. The cause of the fire is still under investigation. Waldo Canyon Fire The Waldo Canyon Fire is a forest fire that started 10 miles (16 km) northwest of Colorado Springs on June 23, 2012, on July 8, 2012 the fire is 100 percent contained on of US Forest Service land. The fire has caused the evacuation of over 32,000 residents of Colorado Springs, Manitou Springs and Woodland Park, several small mountain communities along Highway 24, and partial evacuation of the United States Air Force Academy. On the afternoon of June 26, winds increased following a dry thunderstorm that passed west of the fire, within two hours the fire which had been held by firefighters near Rampart Road jumped northeast into Queens Canyon as the fire crested out of Queens Canyon gusts as high as pushed the fire down the front range particularly into the Mountain Shadows neighborhood. After 12 hours of fighting the blaze in western Colorado Springs the fire had claimed over 350 homes in Colorado Springs, thus making it the most destructive fire in Colorado state history by the number of houses burned. Flagstaff fire The Flagstaff fire (also called Bison fire) was forest fire located a few miles southwest of the city of Boulder in Boulder County. The fire was started by a lightning strike at 1:15 p.m., Mountain Daylight Time, on Tuesday, June 26, 2012, near the intersection of Flagstaff Road and Bison Drive, about three miles south of Flagstaff Mountain. Evacuation was ordered for 26 households in the Pine Needle Notch mountain subdivision. A pre-evacuation order was issued Tuesday evening, June 26, for 2400 households in southwestern Boulder proper. The pre-evacuation order was lifted late the next day, Wednesday, June 27. The city of Boulder closed down a large part of the City of Boulder Mountain Parks to public use, specifically trails south of Chautauqua. On July 2, the city reopened the Mesa Trail and all trails east of the Mesa Trail to public use, although trails west of the Mesa Trail remained closed. As of July 2, 2012, the Flagstaff fire was 90% contained and had burned about 300 acres. Lower North Fork fire In March, the 4,140 acre fire took the lives of three residents and destroyed 23 homes, one mile east of Foxton, Colorado. The Lower North Fork fire started on Monday, March 26. Preliminary reports indicate that the fire was caused by embers from a prescribed fire. High Park fire The High Park fire, a forest fire in the mountains west of Fort Collins in Larimer County, was caused by a lightning strike and was first detected on the morning of June 9, 2012. A 62-year-old woman was killed in the fire. This fire burned over , making it the second-largest fire in recorded Colorado history by area burned, after the Hayman Fire of 2002. It destroyed at least 259 homes, surpassing the number consumed by the Fourmile Canyon fire of 2010. The High Park fire was the most destructive fire in Colorado history, in terms of the number of houses burned, until it was surpassed by the Waldo Canyon fire. The High Park fire was declared 100 percent contained on June 30, 2012, and all related evacuation orders were ended. Springer fire Reported June 17, 2012, the Springer fire, in Eleven Mile Canyon south of Lake George, burned over 1,100 acres. Over 500 firefighters fought the fire. As the fire was brought under control on Sunday, June 24, 2012, resources were pulled from it to fight the Waldo Canyon fire. Woodland Heights fire On June 23, 2012, the Woodland Heights fire in Estes Park, Colorado was started by a power line rubbing against a pine tree. The fire spread to 27.3 acres, burning 22 houses and two outbuildings in the Rocky Mountain National Park. The fire was contained over the weekend, and residents were allowed to return to the area the following Monday afternoon, June 25, 2012. Estes Valley Fire Protection District's proactive response, along with the extra resources afforded by a cost-sharing agreement with Larimer County, were credited with preventing the fire spreading into a major disaster on the scale of some of the year's other wildfires in the state, EVFPD board president Sue Doylen calling it one of the wildfire season's success stories. Last Chance Fire Starting Monday, June 25, 2012, this grassland fire, in and near the small towns of Last Chance and Woodrow in Washington County, burned over 45,000 acres, making it the second largest wildfire by acreage in Colorado in the year 2012 to date, after the High Park fire. Although this fire burned a very sparsely populated area, nonetheless at least 11 structures were lost, including four houses. The fire was declared fully contained on Tuesday evening, June 26. Cause of this fire is thought to be sparks thrown up from an automobile wheel following a tire blowout. Ironing Board fire The Ironing Board fire was a short-lived forest fire, started by a lightning strike on Thursday, June 28, 2012 in the City of Boulder Mountain Parks adjacent to the Third Flatiron. The fire was extinguished the next day. Although small, this fire was even closer to the city of Boulder than the Flagstaff fire. The sighting of this forest fire on the heels of the Flagstaff fire provoked numerous reports from the public. Pine Ridge fire The Pine Ridge fire was a large wildfire caused by a lightning strike that was detected in the rugged Little Bookcliffs area at 1:57 pm, MDT, on Wednesday, June 27, 2012 ten miles northeast of Grand Junction in Mesa County, Colorado. The fire started at a generally small size of twenty acres and rapidly grew uncontrollably due to the low humidity and high temperatures. As of Wednesday, July 4, 2012, officials say that the fire had burned an estimated 13,920 acres and have contained 100% of the fire. This was the first major fire of 2012 on the Western Slope. The cost to fight the fire was at an estimated $2.4 million. Wetmore fire On Tuesday, October 23, a wildfire was reported around 1:30 pm about a quarter mile south of Wetmore, Colorado. Winds blowing as fast as 50 miles per hour fanned the flames which grew to 970 acres within hours. Due to dangerous gusts, all firefighting aircraft were grounded. Greenwood and other nearby communities were evacuated, in which a total of 15 structures were destroyed. Over the next few days, the high winds subsided, allowing firefighters to achieve full containment on the fire by October 29. The blaze burned just under 2,000 acres and is believed to be human-caused. Fern Lake fire An illegal campfire sparked the Fern Lake fire in Rocky Mountain National Park on Tuesday, October 9. Due to steep and inaccessible terrain, firefighters could only monitor the fire. It smoldered throughout October and November; slowly reaching over 1,500 acres and 40% containment. On December 1, wind speeds increased to as high as 75 miles per hour and pushed the fire east three miles into Moraine Park, where an unoccupied cabin was destroyed and over 580 homes were evacuated. A snowstorm later that month halted the fire at 3,500 acres, but smoke was still visible until January 7, 2013. See also 2012 North American drought Summer 2012 North American heat wave References External links Current evacuation zones and active burning area from The Gazette and Google Maps InciWeb information for the Waldo Canyon Fire Study: Climate change leaves American West especially vulnerable to wildfires; Colorado snowpack only 2 percent of normal June 12, 2012 The Colorado Independent Wildfires across Colorado, June 26, 2012 satellite image US wildfires are what global warming really looks like, scientists warn; The Colorado fires are being driven by extreme temperatures, which are consistent with IPCC projections 29 June 2012 The Guardian, regarding 2012 Colorado wildfires and the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Mass murder in 2012 Wildfires in Colorado 2012 wildfires in the United States 2012 in Colorado Arson in Colorado June 2012 crimes in the United States June 2012 events in the United States July 2012 crimes in the United States July 2012 events in the United States August 2012 crimes in the United States August 2012 events in the United States 2012 murders in the United States Colorado, 2012

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20Colorado%20wildfires

List of Colorado wildfires

This is a partial list of wildfires in the U.S. State of Colorado which have occurred periodically throughout its recorded history. One of the most significant fires in United States history was The Big Blowup of 1910. In that fire, 3 million acres burned and 78 firefighters were killed in the northern Rocky Mountains (in the states of Washington, Idaho, and Montana) which led to a standing policy in Colorado of all fires out by 10 am. The policy evolved over the 20th century. The Colorado State Forest Service was established by the Colorado General Assembly in 1955 and oversees response to wildfires in Colorado. Part of the 2002 Colorado wildfires that burned nearly 360,000 acres, the Hayman Fire was the largest wildfire in Colorado state history for nearly 20 years until the Pine Gulch Fire surpassed it in August 2020. The Cameron Peak Fire became the largest wildfire in Colorado history seven weeks later, at a size of 206,667 burned acres as of October 21, 2020. The 2012 Colorado forest fires broke the record for most destructive fire twice and led to declaration of a federal disaster area in June 2012. The 2013 Colorado forest fires, fueled by high heat and winds again broke the record for the most destructive and included what was the second largest fire (by area) in Colorado history until being surpassed by several fires in 2020. With multiple record-breaking fires, the 2020 Colorado wildfire season became the largest in the state's history after burning . List of fires This list only covers the largest, most destructive fires in Colorado history. Colorado State University (CSU) has information on named fires from 1976 to 2006 and total wildfires from 1960 to 2009. According to CSU, wildfires in Colorado burned less than per decade over the 1960s and the 1970s. For the 1980s and 1990s, the total was over per decade. For the 2000s, the total was approximately . Notable fires from before 1980 are also included, sourced mainly from old newspapers and records. All fires greater than and all but one over occurred in the 21st century. Acreage of fires that are partly in Colorado are indicated in red. See also 2012 Colorado wildfires 2013 Colorado wildfires 2020 Colorado wildfires Bibliography of Colorado Geography of Colorado History of Colorado Index of Colorado-related articles List of Colorado-related lists Outline of Colorado Timeline of Colorado history References External links {{sister project links|Colorado|auto=yes} United States Department of Agriculture United States Forest Service Wildland Fire State of Colorado Colorado Department of Natural Resources Colorado State Forest Service Wildfire History – Colorado State Forest Service via Colorado State University Colorado Mountain Home Wildfire Mitigation Wildfires in Colorado Colorado history-related lists Colorado wildfires, List of

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20Michigan%20wildfires

List of Michigan wildfires

The U.S. state of Michigan has been the site of several major wildfires. The worst of these were in the lumbering era of the late-1800s when lumbering practices permitted the buildup of large slash piles and altered forest growth patterns which may have contributed to size of the wildfires. The scattered nature of settlements, lumber camps and Indian tribes during this time lead to large uncertainties in determining the number of deaths and property losses. More recent fires have been much smaller and contained by modern firefighting methods with better records of the destruction they caused. Almost all of the thousands of yearly fires in the state are only a few acres, although 100-200 homes are damaged each year by these small fires. Wildfires See also Gallery References Bibliography Wildfires

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2012%20Oklahoma%20wildfires

2012 Oklahoma wildfires

The 2012 Oklahoma wildfires were a series of wildfires which impacted areas throughout the state of Oklahoma. Starting earlier in the year, a widespread drought caused many areas to be exposed to wildfires. Starting in late July and early August, the wildfires burned at least 52,000 acres, and destroyed at least 121 homes and businesses. A wildfire near Luther in Central Oklahoma destroyed about 50 homes and other buildings before getting under control on August 4. Governor of Oklahoma Mary Fallin declared a state of emergency on July 30 due to the drought and wildfires. Although property damage was substantial, no human lives due to the fires were reported. This may have been because a number of threatened communities were evacuated before fires reached them. Governor requests federal assistance Governor Fallin submitted a major disaster request to FEMA on September 17, 2012, for the period July 28 - August 14, 2012. The request was for Federal assistance to three counties, as well as statewide Hazard Mitigation. Joint Federal, State and local Preliminary Damage Assessments (PDAs) were conducted in the requested counties during September 18–24, 2012. Based on the PDAs, FEMA concluded that, "... the damage was not of such severity and magnitude as to be beyond the combined capabilities of the state and affected local governments," and thus Federal assistance was denied. Governor Fallin was informed of the decision on October 15, 2012. Ongoing high winds have continued to affect Oklahoma. In Durant, high winds forced the Union Pacific Railroad to shut down one of their main railways through the town. In late November, Oklahoma State University researchers said that the wildfires and the ongoing drought were responsible for over $400 million in damages, harvest loss, and livestock loss. Additional fires Glencoe fire On August 4, 2012, a fire broke out near the community of Glencoe, in northern Payne County, Oklahoma that forced all of the residents to evacuate their homes. This fire soon burned more than and destroyed 53 homes. Unlike many of the fires, this blaze was blamed on human activity. Two companies had been conducting welding operations in the area, and were sued for damages. Outdoor welding was actually prohibited, because of a statewide burn ban that had gone into effect the previous day. Weather caused the fire to spread rapidly; the fire marshall of nearby Stillwater, Oklahoma said in an interview that the winds were blowing at and that the high temperature was 107 degrees Fahrenheit. He said it was the 20th straight day of triple-digit temperatures. Only a late wind change spared the town from being totally destroyed. In 2016, a jury decided that, "... IPS Engineering L.L.C. was responsible for 30 percent of the damage the wildfire caused, and Global Pipeline Construction LLC was responsible for the other 70 percent." The two companies were ordered to pay 72 plaintiffs a total of $6.5 million in compensation. In addition, IPS had to pay $1 million in punitive damages, and GPC was fined $100,000. Luther fire Luther, Oklahoma, a town in Oklahoma County just outside Oklahoma City, was severely damaged by a wildfire on August 3–4, 2012. The blazes covered and destroyed 24 houses before the winds abated sufficiently to bring the fire under control. Making the firefighters' work harder, the fire shut down Luther's municipal water pumps, forcing all residents to evacuate their homes. Gov. Mary Fallin visited the scene shortly afterward and told reporters that it was, "devastating." Police said later that they had received reports that a man was seen throwing burning newspapers from the back of a truck in the area, and were treating the cause as possible arson. Mannford fire Another fire in Creek County during the same time period, this time near the community of Mannford, Oklahoma, about west of Tulsa, burned nearly . A fire department spokesperson said that it was the largest wildfire in recent state history. See also Texas-Oklahoma wildfires of 2005–06 2010–13 Southern United States and Mexico drought 2012–13 North American drought Notes References Fires in Oklahoma Wildfires, 2012 Oklahoma Wildfires Oklahoma wildfires Oklahoma wildfires

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2012%20Washington%20wildfires

2012 Washington wildfires

The 2012 Washington wildfires were a series of 1,342 wildfires that burned over the course of 2012. The fires primarily occurred in the Okanogan and Wenatchee National Forests during September and October 2012. A severe lightning storm on September 8 caused hundreds of fires across the east side of Cascade Range. Smoke caused hazardous air quality conditions in the cities of Ellensburg and Wenatchee, and was noticeable in Seattle. The cost of fighting the largest four fires was estimated to be $67.5 million. Taylor Bridge Fire The first major wildfire in Washington during the 2012 season started on August 13 east of Cle Elum between Interstate 90 and U.S. Route 97 in Kittitas County. The fire was fully contained on August 28 after burning acres and destroying 61 homes. The cause of the fire is under investigation, but is suspected to be construction work. September 8 lightning-strike fires Okanogan Complex – . Three fires in the lower Methow River valley, on either side of State Route 153 in Okanogan County. Wenatchee Complex – . The largest fires were south of U.S. Route 2 near the city of Wenatchee mainly in Chelan County. Other fires in the complex were in the upper Entiat and Wenatchee River drainages. Byrd Fire – Canyon Fire – . Located less than a mile west of the city of Wenatchee in Number 1 and Number 2 canyons. Cashmere Fire – . Located south of Icicle Creek extending into the Alpine Lakes Wilderness. Peavine Canyon Fire – . The Peavine Canyon Fire grew to become contiguous with the Table Mountain Fire to the south. Poison Canyon Fire – Table Mountain Fire – . Located east of U.S. Route 97 near Blewett Pass in Kittitas County, the Table Mountain Fire threatened homes and historic structures near Liberty, Washington. The fire grew to become contiguous with the Peavine Canyon Fire to the north. Yakima Complex – . Approximately 75 small fires in Kittitas and Yakima counties. The Wild Rose Fire was the largest and is located north of U.S. Route 12 and east of Rimrock Lake. Cascade Creek Fire – . Located on the south and west slopes of Mount Adams in the Gifford Pinchot National Forest, including part of the Mount Adams Wilderness. Skamania and Yakima counties. Other fires Goat Fire – . Human-caused fire began on September 16, located south of State Route 153 and west of U.S. Route 97 in Okanogan County. References External links InciWeb information for Washington state Wildfires in Washington (state) by year Washington (state) wildfires wildfires

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2012%20Araucan%C3%ADa%20wildfires

2012 Araucanía wildfires

A series of forest fires occurred in January 2012 mainly in the communes of Carahue and Lumaco. The first fire in Araucanía Region appeared in the estate Casa Piedra in Carahue and preceded other summer wildfires in Chile in the Biobío Region and Torres del Paine National Park. By 6 January 2012 seven firefighters had died in the Araucanía fires. The highest political authority of Araucanía, the intendant of the region, denounced the fires as intentional on January 6, 2012. References History of Araucanía Region Wildfires in Chile 2012 wildfires 2012 in Chile 2012 disasters in South America

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2013%20California%20wildfires

2013 California wildfires

9,907 wildfires burned at least of land in the state of California during 2013. The wildfires injured at least 125 people and killed at least 1. They also caused over $218.15 million (2013 USD) in damage. These included several large, notable wildfires, including the Rim Fire, which became California's 3rd largest wildfire. Another wildfire was ignited by the plane crash of the Asiana Airlines Flight 214 on July 6, 2013, which burned around 1 acre of land. Fires Below is a list of all fires that exceeded during the 2013 fire season. The list is taken from CAL FIRE's list of large fires. See also List of California wildfires Climate change in California References External links Photos of the fire at weather.com Current Fire Information . CAL FIRE (California Department of Forestry and Fire Protection) California, 2013 Wildfires in California by year

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2013%20Colorado%20wildfires

2013 Colorado wildfires

In the summer of 2013, there were several major wildfires in Colorado in the United States. During June and July, record high temperatures and dry conditions fueled the fires all across the state. By July 24, 570 structures had been destroyed and 2 people died. Below is a list of the major fires of the year. West Fork Complex fire The West Fork Complex Fire started on June 5, and consisted of three fires, all caused by lightning: the Windy Pass Fire, the West Fork Fire, and the Papoose Fire. The fire grew fast through pine beetle-killed trees, and threatened the town of South Fork only away. The fire burned only one structure, and reached 109,615 acres as of July 23. Ox Cart fire On June 8, the Ox Cart fire began from lightning 9 miles north of Villa Grove in Saguache County. No structures were burned in the fire, which scorched 1,152 acres. As of July 3, it was 100% contained. Big Meadows fire The Big Meadows Fire started on June 10, about five miles north of Grand Lake, in Rocky Mountain National Park. The fire was caused by a lightning strike and was contained at 653 acres on June 24. Royal Gorge fire A fire started one mile west of Cañon City near the Royal Gorge Park, on June 11. The same day, the high winds caused the fire to jump the gorge into the park, resulting in the loss of 48 structures. The famous Royal Gorge Bridge suffered minor damage; only 32 of the planks on the deck were burned. During the fire, 905 inmates from the Colorado Territorial Correctional Facility were evacuated. 3,218 acres were burned as of June 17, and the cause remains unknown. Black Forest fire The same day as the Royal Gorge Fire, a fire was sparked near Shoup Road and Darr Drive in Black Forest. The fire quickly grew to acres by the next day. It destroyed 511 homes, and took the lives of two people. The fire eventually grew to , and was fully contained by June 20. Until the Marshall Fire in 2021, the Black Forest fire was the most destructive wildfire in Colorado history. The exact cause of the blaze is currently under investigation, but it is believed to be started by a human. East Peak fire The East Peak Fire began near the East Spanish Peak, southwest of Walsenburg, in Huerfano County. The town of Walsenburg was put on pre-evacuation while the fire spread out of control after June 19. Eleven structures were destroyed, and the fire was contained at by July 4. The blaze was caused by lightning. Ward Gulch fire The Ward Gulch Fire was caused by a lightning strike 3 miles north of Rifle Gap Reservoir on June 14. The fire grew to and was extinguished by June 21. Lime Gulch fire The Lime Gulch Fire started on June 18 near Chair Rock, for which it was originally named, in Jefferson County near Buffalo Creek. The fire burned over the 2012 Lower North Fork burn scar. It was contained on June 23, and burned . The Lime Gulch Fire was started by lightning. Wild Rose fire The Wild Rose fire was caused by lightning, 21 miles south of Rangley on June 19. The fire burned and was fully contained on June 23. East Tschuddi fire On July 20, a lightning strike northwest of Meeker sparked the East Tschuddi Fire in Rio Blanco County. It burned acres, and was 90% contained by July 27. No homes were threatened by the fire. Citadel fire Also northwest of Meeker, in Moffat County, the Citadel Fire was caused by a lightning strike on July 21. The fire burned acres and was 90% contained as of July 27. Red Canyon Fire The Red Canyon fire started August 12 a couple miles south of Glenwood Springs. The cause is yet to be determined and lightning is suspected. It burned and was 100% contained by August 16. See also List of Colorado wildfires References External links Live blog: Colorado wildfires: Black Forest Fire, Royal Gorge Fire, Big Meadows fires, Denver Post Wildfires in Colorado 2013 wildfires in the United States 2013 in Colorado Colorado, 2013

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2014%20California%20wildfires

2014 California wildfires

2014 saw several notable wildfires igniting in California, especially during the month of May, when multiple fires were ablaze concurrently in Southern California, and during September, when several massive wildfires were burning in Northern California. In the context of the 2012–13 North American drought (especially the 2011–17 California drought), as well as powerful Santa Ana winds, weather conditions were ideal for wildfires. A total of 7,865 wildfires ignited throughout the year, which burned at least of land. The wildfires caused a total of 146 injuries and 2 fatalities, in addition to causing at least $204.05 million (2014 USD) in damage. The season began unusually early when a wildfire ignited on January 1, followed by 6 more fires igniting later within the same month. During a heat wave and dry Santa Ana conditions in May 2014, multiple wildfires broke out simultaneously in San Diego County, along with several other wildfires elsewhere in California. By mid-May, fire officials said they had already dealt with 1,400 wildfires in California in 2014 - twice the normal amount for that time of year - and a spokesman for CAL FIRE described the conditions as "unprecedented." The May 2014 San Diego County wildfires were estimated to have caused at least $60 million (2014 USD) in damage. In late June to early August, another group of wildfires ignited across the state, some of which reached over twenty thousand acres in size. In mid-September, the largest group of wildfires erupted, with some wildfires becoming larger than 50,000 acres in size. In early September 2014, the Happy Complex Fire became the largest wildfire of the season, eventually topping out at in size on September 27. On October 8, an aerial tanker crashed during a firefighting effort at the Dog Rock Fire, which killed the pilot and sparked a small wildfire. From late September to late October, the latest flare-up of major wildfires were extinguished by cooler weather and precipitation. From December 10–13, a powerful winter storm extinguished the remaining wildfires that were present. In mid-December through late December, several more small wildfires sparked, but they were all extinguished by December 31. In 2014, a study examined the human role in growing California wildfire risks. The paper is titled "Extreme fire season in California: A glimpse into the future?" It was published as the second chapter of "Explaining Extreme Events of 2014", by the American Meteorological Society. The authors also projected into the future, and the predicted results showed increases in the drought index, the area under extreme threat of fires, and the days of fire danger, stating that, "The increase in extreme fire risk is expected within the coming decade to exceed that of natural variability and this serves as an indication that anthropogenic climate warming will likely play a significant role in influence California’s fire season." Fires Below is a list of all fires that exceeded during the 2014 California wildfire season, as well as the fires that caused significant damage. The list is taken from CAL FIRE's list of large fires. May San Diego County wildfires In May 2014, a series of at least 20 wildfires broke out in San Diego County during severe Santa Ana Wind conditions, historic drought conditions, and a heat wave. The main event during mid-May was preceded by a precursor fire that ignited on May 5. The severe weather conditions contributed to the spread of at least 19 more individual wildfires, with ten of them receiving names. The Cocos Fire, which was the most destructive with 40 structured being destroyed, was determined to have been caused by arson. The causes of the other fires are still under investigation by multiple agencies, and a joint task force was formed to coordinate the investigations and facilitate communications. Six injuries and one fire-related fatality were reported. Miguelito Fire At 2:00 PM PDT on May 13, the Miguelito Fire broke out off Santa Miguelito Canyon Road in Lompoc, Santa Barbara County. Over the course of the next week and a half, the fire gradually expanded northward to towards the direction of Lompoc, before firefighters managed to stop its expansion on May 16. The fire threatened 1,200 buildings in Lompoc, prompting evacuation orders for the affected areas. On May 16, evacuation orders were lifted, after the fire was reported to be 95% contained. At 9:20 AM PDT on May 19, the Miguelito Fire was reported to be 100% contained. No structural damage or injuries were reported. Hunters Fire On May 27, at 3:00 PM PDT, the Hunters Fire broke out at Hunters Valley Access Road Bear Valley Area, in Mariposa County. The fire spread toward populated areas and evacuations were ordered for the Hunters Valley Area. Stony Fire On June 19, at 3:14 PM PDT, the Stony Fire was reported at Stony Valley Range on Fort Hunter Liggett, in Monterey County. The wildfire quickly spread to , but it was 100% contained by June 20. Moderate amounts of smoke still lingered within the area, and cleanup work was expected to continue for the next few days. The Nacimiento-Ferguson Road was also closed due to downed trees, but was expected to reopen a couple of days later. No evacuations were ordered for this fire, and no injuries or fatalities were reported. The cause of the wildfire is currently under investigation. Butts Fire On July 1, at 12:08 PM PDT, the Butts Fire broke out near Butts Canyon Road in Pope Valley, California, northwest of Lake Berryessa, in Yolo County. Banner Fire The Banner Fire erupted around 10:30 AM PDT on July 3, 2014 in the Banner, California area, near Route 78 in San Diego County. It quickly spread westward and expanded to , threatening the town of Julian. Portions of Route 78 were closed, and mandatory evacuation was ordered for 200 homes; however, the evacuation order was lifted later that evening, as the containment of the wildfire's perimeter increased. Two homes were destroyed, but the heavy use of firefighting planes and helicopters prevented additional losses. Monticello Fire The fire was reported around 9:30 p.m. on Friday, July 4, and quickly grew in size, due to dry and erratic windy conditions. By 11 PM that night, the fire was 100 acres in size, and by 4 AM the next morning, it was already 1,000 acres, according to Winters City Manager John Donlevy, who added that, "...the hills are literally tinder-dry." Highway 128 west of Winters was shut down due to the fire while thirty-four structures at Golden Bear Estates were immediately threatened, resulting in the mandatory evacuation of residents in that area. A separate voluntary evacuation order for the Canyon Creek Resort campground was also put into effect but lifted later that day. As the fire burned north into rugged, steep terrain, access to the area became difficult, limiting firefighting operations. An American Red Cross Shelter was immediately set up at Winters Community Center at 4 a.m. that Saturday morning for over 40 evacuees. By Saturday afternoon, on July 5, the fire had reportedly tripped in size to over , while containment hovered at a mere 15 percent. On Sunday, July 6, containment of the Monticello fire grew to 30 percent, while at least 1,275 firefighters were reported battling the blaze. Fire conditions remained volatile as wind directors switched several times throughout the day, reached gusts of up to 20 mph. All evacuation orders were lifted on Monday, July 7, as containment of the fire grew to 45 percent, with over 1,750 fire personnel on hand. Within the following days, containment lines grew and by July 11, the incident was 95 percent contained with investigators still trying to determine the cause of the fire. The fire was finally contained on July 12, after destroying , however no structures were damaged. The cause of the fire was later determined to be firework-related. Sand Fire The Sand Fire was ignited in El Dorado County, five miles north of the Amador County town of Plymouth, on July 25, at 4:34 PM PDT, by a vehicle driving over dry vegetation. A total of were burned, claiming 20 residences and 47 outbuildings. Twelve hundred residences were evacuated before full containment of the wildfire was achieved on August 2. Gulch Fire On September 10, a car fire started a fire in the Bella Vista area. On September 16, the Gulch Fire was fully contained after burning . The wildfire has also injured a total of 4 people. The damage caused by the Gulch Fire is currently unknown. See also May 2014 San Diego County wildfires 2016 California wildfires List of California wildfires Climate change in California 2014–15 North American winter References California, 2014 Wildfires in California by year

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2014%20Washington%20wildfires

2014 Washington wildfires

The 2014 Washington wildfires were a series of 1,480 wildfires that burned over the course of 2014. The first occurred primarily on the east side of the Cascade Range in Chelan and Okanogan counties. The fires burned private land, state land, and within the Okanogan and Wenatchee National Forests, ultimately covering over . The first fire began on July 8 near the Entiat River. On July 14 a lightning storm started dozens more fires across the eastern Cascade Range. Governor Jay Inslee declared a state of emergency, activating the Washington National Guard. More lightning strikes later in the summer started additional fires. Mills Canyon fire The Mills Canyon fire burned , all within Chelan County. The fire was located south of the Entiat River and west of U.S. Route 97A and the Columbia River in the Entiat Mountains. It started on July 8 and the cause is under investigation. July 14 lightning-strike fires A number of fires were started by lightning strikes on July 14. Carlton Complex The Carlton Complex, covering , began as four separate lightning-caused fires on July 14 in the Methow River valley of Okanogan County: the Cougar Flat, French Creek, Gold Hike, and Stokes fires. These fires merged and rapidly spread southeast on July 17, burning approximately 300 homes in and around the towns of Pateros and Malott as well as in more rural areas. The communities of Brewster, Carlton, and Methow were also threatened by fire. Power was lost to the communities of Twisp and Winthrop. Road closures included State Route 20 east of Twisp towards Loup Loup Pass, State Route 153 between Twisp and Pateros, and U.S. Route 97 between Pateros and Brewster. Rain slowed the fire on July 24, allowing crews to reach 60% containment by July 26. A new fire started along State Route 20 south of Winthrop on August 1. The Carlton Complex was the largest wildfire in Washington state's recorded history, surpassing the 1902 Yacolt Burn. One death, caused by a heart attack, has been blamed on the fire. Fire fighting efforts included nearly 3,000 personnel and numerous aircraft, including seven UH-60 Black Hawk helicopters from the Washington National Guard and a DC-10 Air Tanker. Chiwaukum Creek fire Located northwest of Leavenworth in the Chiwaukum Mountains, this fire burned . It required the closure of U.S. Route 2 and the evacuation of nearly 900 homes, threatening the communities of Coles Corner, Winton, and Plain. A pyrocumulus cloud could be seen rising above the fire from as far away as Seattle. Part of the Chiwaukum Creek Fire burned within the northeastern boundary of the Alpine Lakes Wilderness. Duncan fire Covering , the Duncan fire was located in the upper Entiat River drainage. It began on a ridge between the Entiat River and the North Fork Entiat River, eventually spreading east across the North Fork. Kelly Mountain fire Located in the Entiat Mountains near Tommy Creek, the Kelly Mountain fire burned . Lone Mountain fire Located in the Boulder Creek drainage northeast of Stehekin, the Lone Mountain fire burned . It was within the Lake Chelan National Recreation Area, part of the North Cascades National Park Complex. August 2 lightning-strike fires Devil's Elbow Complex – . This complex was made up of four fires on the Colville Indian Reservation north of Keller, Washington in Ferry County. The fires required closing State Route 21. Hansel fire – . The Hansel fire burned near Ingalls Creek and U.S. Route 97 in Chelan County. Little Bridge Creek fire – . Located between the Twisp River and State Route 20 in Okanogan County. Shoofly fire – in the upper drainage of the Little Wenatchee River in Chelan County. Snag Canyon fire – . Located north of Ellensburg in Kittitas County, the Snag Canyon fire burned six homes. Upper Falls fire – . This fire burned in the Okanogan National Forest west of the Chewuch River. South Cle Elum Ridge fire This fire was reported on August 7 on the Wenatchee National Forest southwest of Cle Elum in Kittitas County and burned . References Further reading 2014 wildfires

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2014%20V%C3%A4stmanland%20wildfire

2014 Västmanland wildfire

The 2014 Västmanland wildfire was a wildfire that broke out on the afternoon of 31 July 2014 on the border between Sala Municipality and Surahammar Municipality in Västmanland, Sweden. It is Sweden's largest wildfire in 40 years. After an EU appeal, Italy and France provided firefighting aircraft. On 4 August 2014, the evacuation of residents began in Gammelby alongside Route 668 east of Lake Virsbo, Västervåla and Ängelsberg. , over one thousand people were forced to evacuate their homes, and the town of Norberg, with about 4500 residents, was being considered for evacuation. One person was confirmed killed by the fire near Stabäck. The fire was declared a national emergency. It encompassed over 15,000 hectares and was located northwest of Sala. The Swedish Armed Forces were mobilized, with about 100 personnel providing support to the firefighters as of 7 August. Authorities requested that volunteer firefighters stay away after one group of them became trapped and had to be rescued. The wildfire threatened the UNESCO World Heritage Site Engelsberg Ironworks. The owners of the Ironworks, Nordstjernan, rented two helicopters of their own to water the area close to the site. The Swedish police started a preliminary investigation of the cause of the fire, to see if it was caused by criminal negligence. According to local media, a driver of a ground-preparation vehicle stated that the fire started in his vehicle and that no fire watch was posted despite a very high risk of fire. Although the 2014 Swedish heat wave did not cause the fire, the exceptionally hot and dry conditions of the summer of 2014 enabled the fire to spread and intensify. See also List of wildfires References External links 2014 in Sweden 2014 wildfires Västmanland County Fires in Sweden Natural disasters in Sweden July 2014 events in Europe August 2014 events in Europe September 2014 events in Europe

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wildfire%20Communications

Wildfire Communications

Wildfire Communications, Inc. was an American company founded in 1992 that developed and sold software and equipment to enhance telephone communications. It created a speech-based electronic secretary in October 1994, pioneering the field of intelligent software assistance accessed completely through the use of natural language. Wildfire is referred to as an early version of Siri, having developed the patent for a "network based knowledgeable assistant" fundamental to voice based telephony. Founding Wildfire Communications was founded in 1992 by inventor Bill Warner, vice president of marketing Nick d'Arbeloff, director of engineering Rich Miner, and chief designer Tony Lovell. The company raised two rounds of venture capital funding in 1992 and 1993 to progress from ideas to development to product announcement. In October 1994 the company released its first product, a virtual assistant named "Wildfire." The Wildfire Assistant Wildfire had an anthropomorphic voice user interface to let users speak commands over a telephone connection to route calls, handle messages, and perform related tasks. The natural voice prompts encouraged users to think of Wildfire as a real person, a mindset reflected by writers and users commonly speaking of Wildfire as "she." This personification helped foster a quicker understanding of the role Wildfire performed: that of an executive assistant tasked with assisting mobile workers. Though users could also use touchtones to control Wildfire, the system's recorded voice prompts elicited them to speak their commands, reinforcing the interactive model of co-workers on a business call. In early 1996, conference calling and a rudimentary integration with voicemail systems was added to bolster Wildfire's value among corporate users. Company sale to Orange In April 2000, Orange purchased Wildfire Communications for $142M. Orange continued to offer Wildfire to its wireless subscribers until 2005, when it decided to terminate the product due to insufficiently broad use. Orange customers passionate about Wildfire, particularly those with disabilities who found the speech interface empowering, complained with sufficient force to cause a month's delay in shut-off, but Orange did indeed kill the service in July, 2005. Technological legacy Wildfire directly influenced several widely used voice user interface-based systems through the work of Blade Kotelly, who moved from a position in usability testing at Wildfire Communications to become Creative Director of Interface Design for SpeechWorks, where he designed richly anthropomorphic systems for United Airlines, E-Trade and other clients. Kotelly wrote of the importance in his design philosophy of creating seemingly human personas for his applications, and said that Wildfire was the best persona he'd seen in a product. Wildfire has also been cited as "a really early version of Siri mostly geared for business execs" and similarities have also been drawn between Wildfire's relaxed conversational style and that of the Apple assistant. References External links Patent for "Network Based Knowledgeable Assistant" Software companies based in Massachusetts Software companies established in 1992 1992 establishments in Massachusetts Defunct software companies of the United States

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Redwood%20and%20Wildfire

Redwood and Wildfire

Redwood and Wildfire is Andrea Hairston's second novel. It centers on the main characters Redwood and Aidan and their travel from Georgia to Chicago at the turn of the 20th century. It was published in 2011 by Aqueduct Press. Awards 2011 James Tiptree, Jr. Award 2011 Carl Brandon Society Award References 2011 American novels James Tiptree Jr. Award-winning works

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wildfire%20%28Kolm%C3%A5rden%20Wildlife%20Park%29

Wildfire (Kolmården Wildlife Park)

Wildfire is a wooden roller coaster at Kolmården Wildlife Park located in Kolmården, Sweden. Manufactured by Rocky Mountain Construction, the roller coaster is both the fastest wooden coaster in Europe, and second tallest wooden coaster in the world. Throughout the 2-minute ride, trains travel through three inversions and twelve airtime hills, whilst reaching speeds of up to . History In April 2014, Wildfire was revealed in a press release on Kolmården's official website. The roller coaster was Rocky Mountain Construction's first in Europe, and Vekoma manufactured the power and control systems of the ride. On 28 October 2016, the coaster ceased operations after only one season when its permit was revoked by the government citing environmental concerns. Speculation ensued that the ride may be torn down as a result. On 28 January 2017, a report surfaced that Wildfire would be allowed to remain standing while a license to continue operation was being discussed. The zoning for the roller coaster was officially approved by the county's council in March 2017, and Wildfire reopened in June 2017. Ride experience After the train is checked and dispatched, it makes a sharp right hand turn into the chain lift hill. Once at the crest, it enters a very large dip (or gigantic dip) into the fastest, right hand banked turn before passing over another crest and into the first drop. The train then drops , reaching an 83-degree angle and its maximum speed of ; before banking up into its first element, an inverted Zero-G stall. From here the train twists through two airtime hills and two high banked turns before encountering its next inversion, a heartline roll. Following this, the track descends to ground level as it passes through sixteen more strong airtime hills, prior to a second heartline roll. The ride finishes with a ski-slalom style right to left section before hitting the brakes and returning to the station. Awards References External links Roller coasters in Sweden

46410812

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2015%20Russian%20wildfires

2015 Russian wildfires

From 12 to 16 April 2015, a series of wildfires spread across southern Siberia, Russia. In the Republic of Khakassia, 29 people were killed and 6,000 left homeless. Further east in Zabaykalsky Krai, four people died in wildfires near Chita. Damage was also reported in Inner Mongolia. Wildfires The series of wildfires began on Sunday morning, 12 April in Khakassia as intentional fires set to clear grass for agriculture were caught by strong winds and got out of control. Warm, dry weather help spread the fires, which quickly spread into the region's forests; daytime temperatures had reached 25 °C and spreading waves of flames soared to 3 meters in height. Russian television said the fires could be seen from space on satellite imagery. At 1 p.m. local time (6:00 GMT), a state of emergency was declared. Fire control planes and helicopters were dispatched by the Ministry of Emergency Situations, but the fires were not completely extinguished until around 6:00 a.m. on 13 April. Separately, 86 wildfires were reported in Zabaykalsky Krai from 13–14 April. Fires approached the city of Chita, threatening to ignite an arms dump. Visibility was reduced to 200–300 m. Eyewitnesses described the scene as "an apocalypse" as Chita was filled with smoke for days. An estimated 1,850 military personnel and volunteers worked to extinguish the fires. According to The Kremlin, Vladimir Putin personally took charge of coordinating disaster response. The fires were reported out on 15 April; however, the report was incorrect and fires remained ongoing on 16 April. Chinese media reports said the fires also spread into Inner Mongolia. Impact The wildfires killed at least 29 people in Khakassia, with three people unaccounted for as of 16 April. Approximately 900 others were injured. Seventy-seven people were hospitalized, with eight in critical condition as of 14 April. Approximately 1,300 homes across 34 villages were damaged, leaving roughly 6,000 people homeless. The town of Shira (near Lake Shira) was hardest hit, with 420 homes burned to the ground. As of 16 April, approximately 800 people across Khakassia remained in hospitals or emergency shelters. Livestock losses were estimated at 5,000 cattle and sheep, with the possibility of more deaths from starvation due to lack of grass to eat. More than 10,000 km2 of land was burnt in the fires. The Khakassia government designated 14 April as an official day of mourning. In the aftermath of the fires, looters were seen stealing bicycles, pipes, and other metal objects to sell as scrap metal. In Zabaykalsky Krai, four deaths were reported. About 20 people were injured, with one person hospitalized. Over 150 homes across 19 villages were damaged, leaving more than 800 people homeless. An estimated 107,000 hectares of land was burnt. In Inner Mongolia, 85 buildings were damaged as well as farming equipment and other vehicles. The damage there was estimated at US$3.2 million. The Federal Forestry Agency blamed local officials for failing to follow agency guidelines for preventing wildfires. Alexei Yaroshenko, a Greenpeace forest expert, demanded that Emergency Situations Minister Vladimir Puchkov and regional Governor Viktor Zimin be punished for the incident. Deputy Emergency Minister Alexander Chupriyan blamed carelessness by citizens saying, "This fire would not have happened if no one played with matches." At least five criminal cases related to the fires have been filed. Authorities did not rule out that some of the fires may have been set by arsonists. See also 2010 Russian wildfires 2018 Russian wildfires 2021 Russian wildfires References Russian wildfires Wildfires Russian History of Khakassia Wildfires in China Wildfires in Russia Wildfires 2015 History of Zabaykalsky Krai History of Inner Mongolia Russian wildfires Wildfires

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2015%20Washington%20wildfires

2015 Washington wildfires

The 2015 wildfire season was the largest in Washington state history, with more than burning across the state from June to September. As many as 3,000 firefighters including 800 Washington National Guard members were deployed to fight the fires. The 17th Field Artillery Brigade of the United States Army also deployed 200 soldiers from Joint Base Lewis–McChord to help fight the fires. On August 21, President Barack Obama declared the fires a federal emergency. On August 24, the Washington Department of Natural Resources announced the Okanogan Complex fire had become the largest fire complex in Washington State history. The Washington State Department of Natural Resources called the season the "worst-ever" in the state's history. Progression and response June June 2015 was a remarkably hot month for the state of Washington, with average temperatures between above normal conditions, setting new records. By June 23, there had already been 313 wildfires across the state. Governor's action Governor Jay Inslee issued a proclamation on June 26, declaring a state of emergency to exist in all Washington state counties, implementing the Washington State Comprehensive Emergency Management Plan, and ordering deployment of National Guard and other organized militia for incident-related service assistance, all because of the predicted risk of wildfires in the wake of significantly drier-than-average weather in June. The Commissioner of Public Lands Peter J. Goldmark, head of the Washington Department of Natural Resources, issued an updated burn ban to the one issued June 22, as the earlier ban was superseded by the Governor's proclamation. The Commissioner's prohibition of campfires in state forests, state parks and state forestlands until September 30, 2015, was issued June 26, 2015. Sleepy Hollow fire The season began unprecedentedly early with the Sleepy Hollow Fire on June 28, affecting the city of Wenatchee in Chelan County, Washington. It burned 2,950 acres, destroying 29 homes and several commercial buildings. The cause of the fire is under investigation but is "likely human-caused". Officials said the fire's unusual intensity was caused by drought and record high temperatures. As a safety precaution, officials banned Fourth of July fireworks in many parts of the state. A man was arrested in connection with the fire, confessing to starting it with a disposable lighter, but faced no charges due to his mental illness. July By July 12, over 16,000 acres had burned, including a single fire near Ephrata, in Grant County, that had burned at least 10,000 acres. Later in the month, another major fire was triggered by farm equipment near Walla Walla and burned more than 6,000 acres over two weeks. August The extent of wildfires in August 2015 led to the federal declaration of a state of emergency in Washington state by President Barack Obama on August 21, 2015. By August 24, over 16 active fires had burned more than . On August 29 there was concern that unusually strong southerly winds would cause "significant growth" of the Tunk Block and Lime Belt fires in the Okanogan complex and growth in the Chelan complex fires. The Twisp River and Nine Mile fires were about 95 percent contained. Chelan Complex Three fires on the south end of Lake Chelan, near the city of Chelan, merged into a complex fire and forced the immediate evacuation of over 1,000 residents on August 14. By August 16, the Reach Complex Fire had grown to , while the Wolverine fire burned nearly . According to Rico Smith, a spokesman for the firefighters near Chelan, by August 29 "about 85 homes, businesses and other residences [had] been destroyed by the Chelan complex fires." Okanogan Complex The Okanogan Complex Fire was formed from five separate wildfires in Okanogan County, of which all but one were caused by lightning strikes, burning approximately by August 20. The Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) authorized the use of federal grants on August 14 for the Nine Mile Fire, one of the five fires that are part of the Okanogan Complex, determining that it constituted a "major disaster". Over 1,300 residents in the towns of Twisp and Winthrop were ordered to evacuate because of the approaching Twisp River Fire. On August 19, 2015, three firefighters were killed battling a wildfire near Twisp. By August 24, the fire had grown to , surpassing the Carlton Complex fire of 2014 to become the largest wildfire complex in Washington state history. By August 28 "at least 45 primary residences, 49 cabins and 60 outbuildings [were] destroyed in the Okanogan complex fires." The size of the complex peaked at on August 30, before the transfer of the Tunk Block Fire under the North Star Fire on August 31. September International assistance After the emergency declaration in August, President Obama asked Australian Fire Services (including those of the Black Saturday bushfires) to aid the depleted American services. By August 24, about 70 fire managers from Australia and New Zealand arrived at the National Interagency Fire Center in Boise, Idaho, to be briefed and provided with gear before heading west to fight the fires. Air quality As a result of the wildfires, air quality across the state and into Canada dropped to unhealthy levels in many cities and led to the issuing of several air quality alerts by the U.S. National Weather Service and Environment Canada. Omak, located northeast of the Okanogan Complex fire, reported an air quality index rating of 500 on August 24. The city of Spokane, from the fires, reported a rating of 188 on August 24, forcing high school athletics and other outdoor activities to be canceled. By Tuesday, August 25, Environment Canada had posted an Air Quality Health Index alert for cities as far away as Calgary, Alberta——with a score of 12. The Canadian Air Quality Health Index, measured on a scale of one to 10-plus with 10 as "very high risk", is based on measurements of "ozone at ground level, particulate matter and nitrogen dioxide". By Wednesday the third day of the thick haze of smoke, air quality in Calgary scored 17. Smoke from the Chelan Complex fire was pushed westward over Seattle and the Puget Sound region by upper-level winds on August 22, causing hazy weather and worsened air quality for several days. Aftermath In December, Governor Jay Inslee proposed a supplemental budget that included $178 million to cover the costs incurred by the state in fighting the wildfires. List of fires Notes See also 2015 California wildfires 2015 Oregon wildfires References External links Inciweb NWCC – Northwest Fire Locations wildfires Washington (state) wildfires Wildfires in Washington (state) by year

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2015%20Canadian%20wildfires

2015 Canadian wildfires

2015 Canadian wildfires were a series of wildfires across Canada and Alaska in July 2015 which spread smoke across most of North America. Over two hundred fires were ablaze across British Columbia, Saskatchewan, and Alberta. Tens of thousand of people had been evacuated and more than of forest had burned. Fire-fighters from Mexico, Western Australia, and New Zealand were sent to assist. The Canadian military also fought the fires. Since the smoke was so dense, warnings had been given across central and Western Canada; additionally, parts of the western United States were also issued air advisories because of the amount of smoke. Wildfires have burned one million hectares (2.4 million acres) in Saskatchewan in the past year according to statistics posted on the Canadian Interagency Forest Fire Centre. The words people have used to describe this natural disaster is "extreme, unprecedented, and historic." A majority of the ecosystem where the fire had been burning consists of boreal forests. Circumstances for catastrophic fires were created as a result of the fuel buildup starting in the 1950s caused fire inhibition. This outcome created a change in the landscape-age mosaic. Initially, this fuel buildup was created for closed canopy ecosystems such as the Pinus ponderosa located in the western United States. Causes The major factors of the severe wildfire situation were weather conditions, dead grass, winds and lightning. Dead, dry grass were particularly flammable due to high temperatures and lack of rain. Meanwhile, fires spread very quick with forest fuels in windy situations. Moreover, lightning further deteriorated the situation. Wildfire progression The wildfire season in Alberta in 2015 was unprecedented and began earlier than before. It started on 1 March and ended on October 31. By May 21, the wildfire hazard in the High Level Wildfire Management Area (HLWMA) was EXTREME. A fire restriction started in effect. As for July 10, the wildfire hazard dropped because of rain. By October 31, HLWMA had 333 wildfires and totalled 1,773 wildfires recorded, which was such a large figure that only had been exceeded twice since 1990, with 491,802 hectares burned. Response Effort First Responders The 2015 fire season pushed the system to its limit in terms of engaging resources in a situation where other jurisdictions were also demanding resources. Fire suppression cost $198,561,059 in total, mobilising just short of 2000 personnel in the 2015 fire season. As a result, they contained 92.7% of wildfire in the first burning period, and 95.6% in the second burning period. The 2015 Fire season and wildfire management program review concluded that fire suppression was 'well-defined and well-executed'. However, more than 13,000 people were forced from their homes due to northern Saskatchewan blazes, according to Red Cross. The Canadian Red Cross, as of the 9th July 2015, had assisted more than 7,800 people in the province's northern region, with a total of 280 trained Red Cross personnel from across Canada on the ground with many others coordinating from a distance. The Saskatchewan government was forced to bring in a Sikorsky S-64 skycrane from Montana, and the deployment of an immediate response team of 500 members from the Canadian Armed Forces. Political Response The political response to the wildfires was mixed. Canadian Prime Minister Stephen Harper visited a local crew near West Kelowna, B.C. Speaking to the media on the visit, Harper said "We know these are tough and are sometimes dangerous jobs and these efforts really are appreciated by everybody." Looking forward to the future, Harper told reporters that he had spoken with Premier Christy Clark and Saskatchewan Premier Brad Wall about improving methods of fire fighting. Impact Provincial All provinces in Canada were impacted by forest fires in the 2015 season but the provinces of British Columbia, Alberta, and Saskatchewan experienced unprecedented numbers of wildfires and hectares burned. The province of Alberta had 306 wildfires early in the season, which was 100 wildfires above historic averages and was the first indicator of an early and above normal forest fire season. Higher than normal winter and early spring temperatures in Alberta, as well as low precipitation averages across all the Western Canadian provinces was noted. The province of Saskatchewan experienced 292 wildfires above the 10-year average for the province. Socioeconomic During the 2015 wildfires, almost 18,000 people were evacuated in approximately 80 evacuation events. The indigenous peoples make up a large portion of the total number of evacuees - they are disproportionately affected by the wildfires since they often live in remote forest areas. Forests are their main work and food source, and are also important from a cultural standpoint. The province with the highest number of evacuees for 2015 season was Saskatchewan, including communities of La Ronge, Air Ronge and the Lac La Ronge Indian band where fires forced 13,000 people to leave their homes – making it the largest evacuation in the Saskatchewan history. In British Columbia, 1,144 homes were evacuated (approximately 3,432 individuals), and over 50 structures were destroyed, the highest number since 2003, throughout the province, with major losses at Puntzi Lake and Rock Creek during 2015 wildfire season. Wildfires also resulted in road closures which negatively impacted the oilsands, conventional oil, and gas industry in Alberta. Moreover, the damage to the forests and the forestry industry culminated into a total cost of almost $20 million CAD for remedial reforestation and reclamation work funded by the Alberta province. Health Air quality advisories were issued in British Columbia, Alberta, and Saskatchewan due extensive amounts of smoke and particulates in the air. The air quality advisories encouraged the elderly, infants, and individuals living with chronic illness to remain indoors; healthy individuals were encouraged to avoid outdoor strenuous activities to reduce exposure to wildfire smoke. Two wildfire suppression related fatalities occurred during the 2015 Canadian wildfires. Environment Burned soil and tree roots needed a long time to recover with complexly different species. Ashes and deeply burned organic soils which had high heat might smoulder under snow, leading to more fires. Moreover, wildfires produced air pollutants, polluting a quite large area of Canada and the United States. References 21st-century wildfires in Canada Canada Wildfires Wildfires 2015 Wildfires Canadian wildfires Canadian wildfires Canadian wildfires

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2015%20California%20wildfires

2015 California wildfires

The 2015 California wildfire season was a series of wildfires that burned across the state of California. By the end of 2015 a total of 8,745 fires were recorded, burning across the state. Approximately 3,159 structures were damaged or destroyed by wildfires, and at least 7 fatalities were recorded. On September 11, after the Butte Fire exploded from a size of to , in the Amador and Calaveras counties, Governor Jerry Brown declared a state of emergency. Nationwide fire season The National Interagency Fire Center reported in mid-August that the 2015 fire season had been the most destructive since 2011. Nationwide, a total of had burned, which is roughly triple the total land area burned from the same time span in 2014. By the end of August, in terms of the land area burned, the 2015 nationwide wildfire season had surpassed any other wildfire season in the last 10 years, with burned. Fatalities The season also proved to be a deadly one for firefighters battling the many blazes throughout the state. A United States Forest Service member from South Dakota died on July 31 from carbon monoxide poisoning, while battling the Frog Fire in the Modoc National Forest. A second firefighter was killed on August 8 by a falling tree, while battling the Sierra Fire south of Echo Summit. A 72-year-old disabled woman was killed in her home by the fast-moving Valley Fire. Fires Below is a list of all fires that exceeded during the 2015 California wildfire season, as well as the fires that caused significant damage. The information is taken from CAL FIRE's list of large fires, and other sources where indicated. See also List of California wildfires 2015 Oregon wildfires 2015 Washington wildfires Climate change in California 2014–15 North American winter References External links 2015 California Fire Map (a Google map created by CAL FIRE) California current incident information from CAL FIRE California wildfires on the US Forestry Incident Information System (InciWeb) Wildfires in California by year California, 2015

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/October%202007%20California%20wildfires

October 2007 California wildfires

The October 2007 California wildfires, also known as the Fall 2007 California firestorm, were a series of about thirty wildfires (17 of which became major wildfires) that began igniting across Southern California on October 20. At least 1,500 homes were destroyed and approximately 972,147 acres (about 3,934 km2, or 1,520 mi2) of land was burned from Santa Barbara County to the U.S.–Mexico border, surpassing the October 2003 California wildfires in scope, which were estimated to have burned . The wildfires killed a total of 14 people, with nine of them dying directly from the fires; 160 others were injured, including at least 124 firefighters. At their height, the raging fires were visible from space. These fires included the vast majority of the largest and deadliest wildfires of the 2007 California wildfire season. The only wildfire in 2007 that surpassed any of the individual October 2007 fires in size was the Zaca Fire. California Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger declared a state of emergency in seven California counties where fires were burning. President George W. Bush concurred, and ordered federal aid to supplement state and local response efforts. Over 6,000 firefighters worked to fight the blazes; they were aided by units of the United States Armed Forces, United States National Guard, almost 3,000 prisoners convicted of non-violent crimes, and 60 firefighters from the Mexican cities of Tijuana and Tecate. The fires forced approximately 1,000,000 people to evacuate from their homes, becoming the largest evacuation in California's history. Major contributing factors to the extreme fire conditions were drought in Southern California, hot weather, and unusually strong Santa Ana winds, with gusts reaching 85 mph (140 km/h). California's "fire season," which traditionally runs from June to October, has become a year-round threat, due to a mixture of perennial drought and the increasing number of homes built in canyons and on hillsides, surrounded by brush and forest. The fires had numerous sources. Several were triggered by power lines damaged by the high winds. One fire started when a semi-truck overturned. Another was suspected to have been deliberately caused; the suspect was shot and killed in flight by state authorities. A 10-year-old boy admitted that he accidentally started the Buckweed Fire by playing with matches. The last active fire, the Harris, was fully extinguished on November 16, 2007, about 27 days after the series of wildfires had begun to ignite. The October 2007 wildfires caused over $2 billion (2007 USD) in insured property damages. Fires This is a list of the named fires that ignited as part of the October 2007 California firestorm, beginning in late October 2007. Most of these wildfires were managed by Cal Fire at some point in time. Notes Counties San Diego County Of all the wildfires, the two largest ones were located in San Diego County. The largest, the Witch Creek Fire, burned areas in north and northeast San Diego County. The second largest, the Harris Fire, burned northwest from the U.S–Mexico border towards San Diego. Officials feared that the fires could become even more destructive than the 2003 Cedar Fire that burned , destroyed 2,820 buildings (including 2,232 homes), and killed 15 people (including one firefighter) before being contained on November 3, 2003. Although individually the fires did not surpass the Cedar Fire, if they had combined as one, they would have. Residents were subjected to a mix of mandatory and voluntary evacuations, depending on the projected path of a fire. Hundreds of thousands of residents were notified of evacuations via a computerized Reverse 911 phone call system. While this alert system was mostly effective, many residents in Rancho Bernardo received the calls after they had been driven from their homes. On the other hand, in Carmel Valley, only the northern half was officially evacuated, but a computer error mistakenly sent Reverse 911 calls to the southern half as well. Law enforcement officers also notified residents by driving through evacuation areas. On October 24, 2007, San Diego County Sheriff Bill Kolender stated that the number of people evacuated in San Diego county exceeded the number evacuated from New Orleans, Louisiana during Hurricane Katrina. Two days into the fires, approximately 500,000 people from at least 346,000 homes were under mandatory orders to evacuate, the largest evacuation in the region's history. Evacuation sites included Qualcomm Stadium, as well as many schools, civic centers, and churches throughout the area. The American Red Cross managed the evacuation centers. Officials estimated that 12,000 gathered at Qualcomm stadium. Volunteers provided food, blankets, water, internet services, children's toys, massages, and a live rock band performance for those at the stadium. Nearly all public schools and universities in the San Diego area were closed. Many businesses closed as well. To ensure clear roads for emergency vehicles, San Diego mayor Jerry Sanders asked residents to stay home and inside. By October 23, some evacuations were lifted, allowing about 50,000 residents from the cities of Del Mar, Chula Vista, and Poway, and the San Diego neighborhoods of Del Mar Heights and Scripps Ranch to return home. On October 24, more evacuation orders for parts of Rancho Bernardo and other areas further west were lifted. However, the fires continued and damage was severe. The four major fires across San Diego County burned over and destroyed or damaged 1,350 homes and 100 businesses since October 21, 2007. Many major roads were closed as a result of fires and smoke. On October 22, the California Highway Patrol closed Interstate 15 in both directions between State Routes 78 and 56. On October 24, 2007, the Ammo (Horno) Fire forced the closure of Interstate 5 as well as the Amtrak California Surfliner service between Oceanside and San Clemente. Traffic from Interstate 5 was diverted to Interstate 15, which had reopened. Officials from the San Diego Wild Animal Park said that its more than 3,500 animals were safe staying in their enclosures where they were protected by the park's fire break and irrigated areas. If the weather conditions worsened, the animals could retreat to their watering holes. However, many critically endangered animals such as the California condor were moved to the park's veterinary hospital, which is fire-resistant and fully equipped with sprinklers. Park spokesperson Yadira Galindo said that the animals were "alert but not showing any concerned behavior." Fire data was provided by the California Department of Forestry & Fire Protection and independent news media. : the following fires burned in San Diego County: Witch Creek Fire The Witch Creek Fire was the largest of the October 2007 wildfires and surpassed the 1970 Laguna Fire as the third-largest fire in California history. Hundreds of thousands of residents were informed of evacuations through the Reverse 911 system. This evacuation came almost four years to the day after the Cedar Fire of 2003. The fire started in Witch Creek Canyon near Santa Ysabel, and quickly spread to San Diego Country Estates, Ramona, Rancho Bernardo, Poway and Escondido. Locals in the San Pasqual Valley area reported wind gusts of over . From there the fire jumped over Interstate 15 and continued west, causing significant damage in Lake Hodges, Del Dios, and Rancho Santa Fe. Strong Santa Ana winds pushed the fires west towards the coast. San Diego County Sheriff William B. Kolendar stated that the Witch Creek Fire could be "well in excess of the Cedar Fire of 2003". While many coastal communities were evacuated as the fire moved west, the shifting winds prevented it from directly threatening those areas. During the duration of the Witch Fire, fire officials reported 80–100 feet-high flames within the wildfire. On the morning of October 22, at 5:22 AM PDT, residents located between the Del Dios Highway and State Route 56 were ordered to evacuate. By 9:30 P.M. PDT on October 22, a dispatch from the city of Del Mar's web site stated: "For your safety, we are strongly advising that all Del Mar residents evacuate." Evacuations were also ordered for Scripps Ranch neighborhood, specifically "Everything south of Scripps Poway Parkway, north of MCAS Miramar, east of Interstate 15, and west of Highway 67". The Mesa Grande Indian Reservation was evacuated due to the Witch Fire. Residents of the Barona Indian Reservation were advised to leave, though the evacuation was not mandatory. The casino on the reservation was closed. At approximately 01:00 UTC on October 23 (6:00 PM PDT on October 22), fire broke out near Wildcat Canyon to the south of Barona, where many houses were destroyed and lives lost in the Cedar Fire. Residents of Wildcat Canyon and Muth Valley were ordered to evacuate, and the road was closed. During the late afternoon of October 23, the evacuations for Del Mar, Chula Vista, Poway, Del Mar Heights, and Scripps Ranch were lifted for many residents. At 9:50 P.M. PDT on October 23, 2007, the town of Julian, California was ordered to evacuate. Due to the fires, there was no power or phone service in the town. Evacuation sites in San Diego County included Qualcomm Stadium, Escondido High School, Mission Hills High School, Poway High School, Mira Mesa Senior High School, and the Del Mar Fairgrounds. Many major roads were also closed as a result of the fires and smoke. On October 22, the California Highway Patrol closed Interstate 15 in both directions between State Routes 78 and 56. On October 24, 2007, the Ammo (Horno) Fire forced the closure of Interstate 5, as well as the Amtrak California Surfliner service between Oceanside and San Clemente. Traffic from Interstate 5 was being diverted to Interstate 15, which had reopened. 1,841 firefighters were assigned to the fire. On Wednesday, October 24, 2007, some of the evacuation orders in place for Rancho Bernardo, Rancho Peñasquitos, 4S Ranch, and other areas west of Rancho Bernardo were lifted, after the western part of the Witch Creek Fire had been extinguished. However, the evacuation orders in place for eastern and northern Rancho Bernardo, around Lake Hodges, were still in place. On October 25, more of the evacuation orders for the Witch Fire around Rancho Bernardo were lifted, as the Witch Creek Fire became 45% contained. Late on October 24, after the winds had reversed, the Witch Fire began approaching the nearby Poomacha Fire to the north, which was burning near Palomar Mountain, with firefighters and officials fearing that the two wildfires would soon merge. On October 25, the Witch Fire and the Poomacha Fire merged into one gigantic complex fire, with the two wildfires joining to the south of Palomar Mountain. On October 26, the Witch Fire also merged with the contained McCoy Fire, which had previously burned 400 acres in the Pine Hills area, in eastern San Diego County. Harris Fire The Harris Fire burned in a northwest direction from its starting point at Harris Ranch Road in the town of Potrero, in the far south of San Diego County, a few miles north of Tecate, Mexico. On October 23, the fire approached eastern Chula Vista. Many communities were evacuated, with evacuation centers set up at a nearby high school and community center. Thomas James Varshock, 52, of Potrero, died on his property during the Harris Fire on Sunday. His teenage son suffered burn injuries, along with four firefighters of the California Department of Forestry and Fire Protection, who had attempted to rescue them. The fire may also have caused the deaths of four migrant workers near the U.S.–Mexico border. An estimated 1,210 firefighters battled this fire. The Harris Fire also burned into northern Mexico, near the town of Tecate. On November 5, the Harris Fire was 100% contained. However, hotspots continued to burn within the perimeter of the Harris Fire until November 16, when the last hotspot was finally extinguished. Other fires Marine Corps Base Camp Pendleton Fires: The Wilcox Fire began at Santa Margarita/33 Area behind Marine Corps Air Station Camp Pendleton. The Ammo Fire was located near the Las Pulgas/43 Area and Basilone Road. The Horno Fire burned , and was located in the Basilone Road and Canyon Road/Las Flores/41 Area. The Poomacha Fire (or Mt. Palomar Fire) began as a structure fire on the La Jolla Indian Reservation, then established itself on Palomar Mountain, merged with the Witch Fire on October 25, and entered the Agua Tibia Wilderness. Because of steep terrain, it continued to burn after all other October 2007 fires were put out, before finally reaching full containment on November 13, 2007. The Rice Canyon Fire started in the early morning of October 22, in the Rice Canyon near Fallbrook. It caused massive evacuations and the closure of Interstate 15. The Rice Canyon Fire was caused by downed power lines. The Coronado Hills Fire started near San Marcos, and burned south of Cal State San Marcos. On October 23, The San Diego Union-Tribune reported on the El Capitan Fire: "A small brush fire that burned today around El Capitan Reservoir north of Alpine is out, Cal Fire officials said about 9:30 p.m. Officials said the blaze consumed the vegetation near the reservoir and ran out of fuel." The McCoy Fire started on October 21, at the Cleveland National Forest, near the intersection of the Eagle Peak and Boulder Creek roads, west of Rancho Cuyamaca State Park. It burned and destroyed at least one structure in Pine Hills. Although the McCoy Fire was contained on October 23, the McCoy Fire eventually merged into the still-expanding Witch Creek Fire on October 26, shortly before the smaller fire was fully brought under control. Los Angeles and Ventura counties Numerous fires burned in Los Angeles and Ventura Counties. The Buckweed Fire burned north of Santa Clarita in Agua Dulce and the community of Canyon Country, triggering many evacuations. This fire was the result of a child playing with matches. The Canyon Fire burned around Malibu, California, specifically in Malibu Canyon. It was the first of the October 2007 California wildfires to receive significant attention from the national media. In addition to damaging or destroying 14 homes, the fire destroyed two Malibu landmarks: Castle Kashan and the Presbyterian Church. The Magic Fire started near The Old Road at Magic Mountain Parkway, within a half mile of the Six Flags Magic Mountain theme park on the west side of Santa Clarita. Flames came within a few yards of West Ranch High School and a large housing development in Stevenson Ranch, but were pushed away. The fire is believed to have been caused accidentally by welders at a construction site. The Meadowridge Fire began near Highway 14 and San Fernando Road in Santa Clarita. The October Fire burned a small area in Santa Clarita, destroying several homes in the Canyon Breeze Mobile Home Park. The Ranch Fire (or Castaic Fire) burned along the Los Angeles-Ventura county line about north of Santa Clarita, in the Angeles and Los Padres national forests. It surrounded the Ventura County community of Piru and also threatened the communities of Fillmore, Ventura and Ojai. About 500 residences lie in the fire's path. Evacuations were recommended in all of Piru and portions of Fillmore. Angeles National Forest officials implemented a total forest closure on October 23. The Nightsky Fire burned a small area south of Moorpark in Ventura County. Fire data has been provided by the CAL FIRE and independent news media. : Orange County The Santiago Fire began shortly before on October 21, 2007 in the foothills north of Irvine and east of the city of Orange in Orange County. The fire was reportedly started in two separate spots (along Santiago Canyon Road, west of Silverado Canyon Road); fire officials have attributed the source of the fire to arson. On October 24, 2007, Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger visited an evacuation center at El Toro High School. Schools and districts all over Orange County were closed on Friday, October 26, 2007 because of the smoke and bad air quality. A reward of $250,000 was offered for information leading to arrest of the arsonist(s). Fourteen homes and twenty four outbuildings were destroyed. Eight homes and three outbuildings were damaged, and sixteen firefighters were injured. In all, the fire burned . San Bernardino County Current data on the fires has been provided by the CAL FIRE and independent news media. As of October 30: The Slide or Green Valley Lake Fire burned near Green Valley Lake, east of Lake Arrowhead. The Green Valley Lake, Arrowbear, and Running Springs communities were evacuated. 1,359 firefighters were assigned to the fire. The estimated cost is $1.2 million. Water pressure in local systems was lost and conditions were too extreme for fighters to continue efforts in some areas. The fire partially burned "Camp Helendade," owned by the Boy Scouts of America's local council, the California Inland Empire Council. Helendade was originally given to the council in 1960 to replace another camp that had been burned. The Grass Valley Fire was located just north of Lake Arrowhead. Together, the Devore and Glen Helen Fires (or Cajon Fire) forced the closure of Interstate 15 in the Cajon Pass. One fire was started by an overturned semi-truck. The Little Mountain Fire threatened several homes and other structures near Cal State San Bernardino before it was contained. Due to the cumulative effects of the area fires, the University closed for the week of October 23. Santa Barbara County The Sedgewick Fire was the northernmost of the October 2007 California wildfires. It ignited around 6:00 a.m. PDT on October 21, 2007 from a downed power line. The fire burned a total of near Los Olivos. Approximately 2000 people were affected and 800 homes threatened before the fire was 100% contained around 5:00 p.m. on October 22. Riverside County The Roca Fire was reported around 3:52 p.m. on October 21 in the vicinity of SR 79 at SR 371 in Aguanga. One home was destroyed and one injury was reported. It was 100% contained on October 22, after burning . The Rosa Fire, three clustered blazes in the Via Santa Rosa/Rancho California Road area of western Temecula began October 22. It was 100% contained by October 24, after burning . Investigators suspect arson. The Wildomar Fire began around 12:30 on October 24 in Wildomar brush, between I-15 and I-215. It was 100% contained within the same day, after burning . Baja California Fires also burned in northern parts of the Mexican state of Baja California. The Harris Fire burned near Tecate, and fires burned near Tijuana as well. More than fifteen thousand hectares were consumed by the wildfires in Baja California. Tijuana, Tecate and Ensenada were the municipalities more affected by the fire. In total there were seven fires caused by Santa Ana winds. The community of Maneadero, in the highlands of Ensenada, was the most affected. Wind and weather The fires occurred at the end of a dry summer and were exacerbated by the seasonal Santa Ana winds, which were blowing at an unusually high strength at that time. The San Diego Union-Tribune reported, "Santa Ana winds blowing up to combined with temperatures into the 90s to create in the worst possible fire conditions." At one point swirling winds threatened to bring fire into densely populated urban areas. At the height of the Santa Ana winds on October 22, the winds reached sustained speeds of , with wind gusts up to reported. Southern California was in the midst of an unusual drought; in Los Angeles, California, with only 3.21 in (82 mm) of precipitation in 2006–2007, it was the driest year on record. The combination of wind, heat, and dryness turned the chaparral into fire fuel. Officials believed that some of the fires generated their own winds, similar to the Oakland firestorm of 1991. The effects of the smoke were felt as far away as Brentwood, California (in the East Bay, near Stockton), where it impacted local weather. The high-speed Santa Ana winds also rendered the use of dropping water from fire fighting aircraft inefficient; until such winds abate, most payloads of water are just dispersed by the wind over an area so large that the water evaporates before it can reach a large fire on the ground. Impact On October 21, the Harris Fire damaged and disabled the Southwest Power Link, a 500,000-volt power line from Arizona to San Diego. Power outages were reported in Los Angeles, Orange, San Diego, and other counties on October 22 to 333,500 Southern California Edison customers, most being restored within 24 hours. The power outage also affected the areas of Ojai, Oxnard, Simi Valley, Santa Clarita, Thousand Oaks, Agoura Hills, Rialto, Fontana, San Bernardino, Rancho Cucamonga, Mira Loma, Hesperia, Corona, Bloomington, Irvine, Calimesa and Rubidoux. This outage also caused 230 people to be without power in Malibu. The California Independent System Operator Corp declared an energy transmission emergency in southern California on October 23, due to wildfires affecting the lines. 500,000-, 230,000- and 138,000-volt lines were disabled in San Diego, and some lines in other areas were also disabled. 24,992 people lost power, due to the lack of power from the power grid. During the crisis, Mexico provided power to help augment the electrical needs of the San Diego area. Authorities said that the evacuation, of more than 900,000 people, was the largest in the history of California. By mid-morning on October 22, 2007, thousands of evacuees had taken shelter in Qualcomm Stadium and other locations throughout San Diego. On the afternoon of October 22, 2007, the Marines evacuated some planes from Marine Corps Air Station Miramar to other military bases in California and Arizona. The Navy moved all non-essential personnel from Naval Base San Diego barracks onto nearby vessels to accommodate refugees. The San Diego Wild Animal Park moved some animals to the on-site animal hospital for their protection. The Horno Fire had charred in Camp Pendleton by 4:00 A.M PDT, on October 24, 2007. It caused the closure of Interstate 5 and it also caused Amtrak California to stop Surfliner service between Oceanside and San Clemente. Traffic was diverted to Interstate 15, which had itself been closed earlier. Illegal migrant workers were endangered by the crisis, sometimes staying at work in the fields in mandatory evacuation zones. Many lived in nearby canyons and distrusted officials. When fleeing the fires, some were arrested, while others were turned away from shelters due to lack of adequate identification. Some Mexican firefighters expressed concern about their countrymen, while others felt the migrant workers were aware of the risks they were taking. coyotehowls Only a few cases of looting were documented. Six people were arrested for stealing supplies from Qualcomm stadium, another was arrested for theft after being found in possession of stolen goods in the Jamul fire area, and two were arrested near the Tecate border crossing. Air quality and effects on health The concentration of particulate matter 10 micrometers and smaller (designated PM10) reached unhealthy levels as a result of the fires. PM10 particles are small enough to enter deep into the lungs, and possibly the bloodstream. San Diego city attorney Michael Aguirre, citing concerns over weather conditions and air quality, urged the city to consider a voluntary evacuation of the entire city. Response Government agencies and volunteers worked together to mitigate the effects of the fires. According to the state of California's Consolidated Response web page, "There are 17 active fires in Southern California. The priority for fighting fires as of 19:30 on October 21 is the Buckweed, Witch, Harris, Canyon, Ranch, Santiago, and Sedgewick Fires." March Air Reserve Base was the primary staging area for relief supplies coordinated by the Federal Emergency Management Agency. With many businesses and schools closed, some people used their time off to help others. An estimated 10,000 evacuees gathered at Qualcomm Stadium, the largest shelter point in San Diego. Besides food, blankets and water, volunteers provided toys for children, massages, and a live rock and roll performance. CERT teams, in various cities, received their first activation since the program's inception in this region. Trained volunteers provided assistance ranging from coordinating relief, to acting as a fire department auxiliary. Religious groups such as Victim Relief Ministries, Giving Children Hope, Hope Force International, Apostolic World Relief, and the Salvation Army opened places of worship, donated supplies, and fed workers and evacuees. The Department of Defense contributed twelve engines for firefighting efforts. The National Guard called more than 2,400 troops, with 17,000 available if needed; of which 100 California National Guard medical personnel provided medical assistance. Six crews from the Navy's Helicopter Sea Combat Squadron 85 based at Naval Air Station North Island were assigned to battle the Witch Creek fire. They flew MH-60 Seahawk helicopters equipped with a 420-gallon water bucket and they were the only local Navy teams trained to fight fires from the air. Marine Corps Air Station Miramar contributed several aircraft as well as fire fighting trucks to operations based in Ramona. One of the larger airtankers, the Martin Mars, sent through a private contract from its home in Port Alberni, British Columbia on October 25, landed on Lake Elsinore in Riverside County, California. It has a 7,000 gallon capacity. Two other airtankers and their crews from Quebec worked on the fires, part of an annual three-month contract with the state of California. California Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger declared a state of emergency in seven California counties where fires burned. President George W. Bush concurred and visited the region on Thursday, October 25, 2007. Rep. Duncan Hunter criticized state fire officials for delaying the use of Marine helicopters until CalFire spotters were in position to coordinate their efforts. However, California Fire Marshal Kate Dargan said that the Marines and officials at CalFire were following procedures worked out with the military after serious problems with air coordination during the 2003 California wildfires. Other state officials also praised the federal response. Aaron McLear, a spokesman for Schwarzenegger, said the governor "is getting everything he needs from the federal government". NBC Nightly News reported that with the evacuations reaching about 950,000 people, this was the largest peacetime movement of Americans since the Civil War era, although similar evacuation figures were cited for Hurricane Rita and Hurricane Katrina. On November 6, 2007, the state of California reported that the fires were under control. On November 9, the last vole of wildfires were finally contained. According to the state's consolidated report on the fires, Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger "called on the Blue Ribbon Task Force to assess the next steps to take at federal, state and local levels of government to prevent and fight future fires. Additionally, the Governor asked the task force to review the Governor’s Blue Ribbon Fire Commission’s recommendations, generated after the 2003 fires, to evaluate if the recommendations are still the best and most effective ways in preventing and fighting fires." See also Witch Fire Recloser Corral Fire (2007) 2003 California wildfires 2008 California wildfires May 2014 San Diego County wildfires 2017 California wildfires October 2017 Northern California wildfires December 2017 Southern California wildfires List of California wildfires Pacific Gas and Electric San Diego Gas and Electric FIRESCOPE References External links Maps CalFire map LA Times managed Google map showing fire locations and relevant information MSNBC managed Virtual Earth map showing fire locations KPBS managed Google map with detailed San Diego area information San Diego County map showing evacuated areas CBS 8: San Diego fire maps Orange County Register detailed map of Santiago fire Academics and Research MAP.SDSU.EDU - mapping, database and geographic information system for the 2003 and 2007 fires, managed by the San Diego GIS force group, and hosted by San Diego State University The San Diego Fire Recovery Network - a Southern California organization which addresses the widespread ecosystem changes in San Diego County caused by the 2003 and 2007 wild fires The GIS Data Center for San Diego Fire Recovery Network - hosted by San Diego State University Let Malibu Burn: A political history of the Fire Coast by Mike Davis 2007 Southern California Wildfires Web Archive at the California Digital Library. Witch Fire Threatens To Merge With Poomacha Fire - ABC 10News Southern California's Worst Brush Fires Wildfires in Los Angeles County, California Wildfires in Ventura County, California Wildfires in Santa Barbara County, California Wildfires in Orange County, California Wildfires in Riverside County, California Wildfires in San Bernardino County, California Wildfires in San Diego County, California

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2015%20Oregon%20wildfires

2015 Oregon wildfires

The 2015 Oregon wildfires were an ongoing series of wildfires affecting parts of the U.S. state of Oregon. August fire The August fire was reported on August 22, 2015, east of Banks. It was fully contained by August 24. It was suspected to be human-caused. One firefighter was injured. Three aircraft were used, taking water from Henry Hagg Lake, which led to its closure for recreational purposes. An estimated were part of the burn, and 60 firefighters were needed. Highway 26 was closed for several days. Cornet-Windy Ridge fire The Cornet-Windy Ridge fire has burned more than on public forest and private lands a few miles west of Durkee. As of August 23, 2015, the fire was 80 percent contained. Eldorado fire The Eldorado fire, which was caused by lightning, has burned more than of land southeast of Unity. As of August 23, 2015, the fire was 65 percent contained. Stouts fire The human-caused Stouts fire has burned 26,000 acres east of Canvyonville, just south of Milo. As of August 23, 2015, the wildfire was 83 percent contained. Willamina Creek fire The Willamina Creek fire, occurring north of Willamina, has burned in "heavy fuels on high-value timberland owned by the Bureau of Land Management and private industrial forestland owners". As of August 23, 2015, the fire was 20 percent contained. Smoke in the Willamette Valley Wildfire smoke from Washington and Oregon was blown west over western Oregon, including Portland and the rest of the Willamette Valley, on August 22–23, 2015. See also 2015 California wildfires 2015 Washington state wildfires References 2015 in Oregon 2015 wildfires in the United States Wildfires in Oregon by year

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2012%20California%20wildfires

2012 California wildfires

California's 2012 wildfire season saw 7,950 wildfires burn a total of ; these included the massive Rush Fire, which was the tenth-largest wildfire recorded in California in modern times, and the Ponderosa Fire, which destroyed 133 structures. The California Department of Forestry and Fire Protection (Cal Fire) incurred fire suppression costs of US$310 million between July 2012 and June 2013, in addition to wildfire damages of $28.2 million. Fires The following is a list of the wildfires that burned more than 1,000 acres (400 hectares), produced significant structural damage or casualties, or were otherwise notable. It is excerpted from Cal Fire's 2012 list of large (≥300 acres) fires, and may not be complete or reflect the most recent information. References California, 2012 Wildfires in California by year

47634859

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2011%20California%20wildfires

2011 California wildfires

The 2011 California wildfires were a series of wildfires that were active in the state of California during the year 2011. In total, there were 7,989 fires that burned of land. Fires Below is a list of all fires that exceeded during the 2011 fire season. The list is, and all data herein, is taken from CAL FIRE's list of large fires, except where otherwise cited. References California, 2011 Wildfires in California by year

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2004%20California%20wildfires

2004 California wildfires

The 2004 California wildfires were a series of wildfires that were active in the state of California during the year 2004. In total, 7,898 fires burned . Fires Below is a list of all fires that exceeded during the 2004 fire season. The list is taken from CAL FIRE's list of large fires. References Wildfires 2004 California, 2004 2004

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2006%20California%20wildfires

2006 California wildfires

The 2006 California wildfires were a series of wildfires that were active in the state of California during the year 2006. In total, there were 8,202 fires that burned of land. Fires Below is a list of all fires that exceeded during the 2006 fire season. The list is taken from CAL FIRE's list of large fires. References California, 2006 Wildfires in California by year

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Project%20Wildfire

Project Wildfire

Project Wildfire was a nationwide, multi-agency investigation of various transnational criminal gangs in 2015 that resulted in the arrests of 976 individuals, representing 239 different organizations, in 282 cities in the United States mainland and Puerto Rico. Eighty-two firearms, 5.2 kilograms of methamphetamine, 7.8 kilograms of marijuana, 5.6 kilograms of cocaine, 1.5 kilograms of heroin, US$379,399, counterfeit merchandise with a suggested retail price of US$547,534 and five vehicles were also seized. As part of the ongoing U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement (ICE) effort known as Operation Community Shield, Project Wildfire began on February 23, 2015, and concluded on March 31, with most arrests involving members and those affiliated with the Crips, Bloods, and Sureños along with a few Puerto Rican gangs and several prison-based gangs. Arrests were made all around the country, with the greatest activity taking place in Texas, Detroit, Los Angeles County, Florida and San Juan, Puerto Rico. Arrests The following number of arrests, made by Homeland Security Investigations (HSI) and other participating agencies, were released by ICE: In Lubbock, Texas, HSI special agents and task force officers arrested 122 known or suspected gang members and associates from the Bloods, Crips, Rolling 60s, Mexican Mafia, Sureños, West Texas, Raza Unida, Aryan Brotherhood, White Aryan Resistance, West Side, Gangster Disciples, Peckerwood, Texas Syndicate and West Texas Tango. In the Detroit area, (HSI) special agents and task force officers arrested 89 gang members and associates with ties to gangs such as the Latin Counts, Folk Nation, Sureños and Atherton Terrace. In Puerto Rico and central Florida, 46 members of the Zorrilla criminal organization were arrested for various charges of manufacturing and distributing narcotics, money laundering and other related criminal activity. In the Chicago area, HSI special agents arrested 30 gang members and affiliates with ties to the Sureños 13, Latin Kings, La Raza, Conservative Vice Lords, Gangster Disciples, 4 Corner Hustlers, Maniac Latin Disciples and the Vice Lords. In California's Imperial Valley, HSI special agents arrested 28 individuals, including 10 documented gang members of the Brole, North Side Centro, West Side Centro, South Side Centro and Pilgrim street gangs. See also Illegal immigration to the United States Mexican Drug War References Aryan Brotherhood Bloods Crips February 2015 events in the United States Folk Nation March 2015 events in the United States Battles of the Mexican drug war Mexican Mafia Operations against organized crime in the United States Sureños

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2016%20Fort%20McMurray%20wildfire

2016 Fort McMurray wildfire

On May 1, 2016, a wildfire began southwest of Fort McMurray, Alberta, Canada. On May 3, it swept through the community, forcing the largest wildfire evacuation in Alberta's history, with upwards of 88,000 people forced from their homes. Firefighters were assisted by personnel from both the Canadian Armed Forces and Royal Canadian Mounted Police, as well as other Canadian provincial agencies, to fight the wildfire. Aid for evacuees was provided by various governments and via donations through the Canadian Red Cross and other local and national charitable organizations. Sweeping through Fort McMurray, the wildfire destroyed approximately 2,400 homes and buildings. Another 2,000 residents in three communities were displaced after their homes were declared unsafe for reoccupation due to contamination. The fire continued to spread across northern Alberta and into Saskatchewan, consuming forested areas and impacting Athabasca oil sands operations. With an estimated damage cost of C$9.9 billion, it was the costliest disaster in Canadian history. The fire spread across approximately before it was declared to be under control on July 5, 2016. It continued to smoulder, and was fully extinguished on August 2, 2017. It is suspected to have been caused by humans in a remote area from Fort McMurray, but no official cause has been determined to date. Fire progression Cause and contributing factors The fire was first reported by a helicopter forestry crew in a remote area from Fort McMurray on May 1, 2016. First responders arrived 45 minutes later. An official cause of the fire has not been determined to date, but it was suspected to be human caused. During the start of the fire, an unusually hot, dry air mass was in place over Northern Alberta, which brought record-setting temperatures to Fort McMurray. On May 3, the temperature climbed to , accompanied by relative humidity as low as 12%. The situation intensified on May 4 when temperatures reached and winds gusted to 72 km/h (45 mph). A natural El Niño cycle also led to a dry fall and winter season along with a warm spring, leaving a paltry snowpack, which melted quickly. Combined with the high temperatures, this created a "perfect storm" of conditions for an explosive wildfire, and significantly contributed to the fire's rapid growth. Climate change was also cited as a potential contributor to the start and spread of the fire. Debate occurred as to whether it was "insensitive" to discuss it during the crisis, or whether the crisis made it "more important" to talk about a correlation between human-influenced climate change and wildfires. Canada's politicians and scientists both cautioned that individual fires cannot specifically be linked to climate change, but agree that it is part of a general trend of more intense wildfires. Spread to Fort McMurray As the fire spread towards settlements in Fort McMurray, a local state of emergency was declared on May 1 at 9:57 p.m. MDT (03:57 UTC May 2) with the Centennial Trailer Park and the neighborhoods of Prairie Creek and Gregoire under a mandatory evacuation. The evacuation orders for the two neighborhoods were reduced to a voluntary stay-in-place order by the night of May 2 as the fire moved southwest and away from the area. The mandatory evacuation order was reinstated and expanded to 12 neighbourhoods on May 3 at 5:00 p.m. (23:00 UTC), and to the entirety of Fort McMurray by 6:49 p.m. (00:49 UTC May 4). A further order covering the nearby communities of Anzac, Gregoire Lake Estates, and Fort McMurray First Nation was issued at 9:50 p.m. on May 4 (03:50 UTC May 5). It has been reported that 88,000 people were successfully evacuated, with no reported fatalities or injuries, but two people, Aaron Hodgson and Emily Ryan, were killed in a vehicular collision during the evacuation, one of whom was the daughter of a firefighter. Despite the mandatory evacuation order, staff at the water treatment plant remained in Fort McMurray to provide firefighters with water. On May 4, the Regional Municipality of Wood Buffalo reported the communities of Beacon Hill, Abasand and Waterways had suffered "serious loss". The Government of Alberta declared a provincial state of emergency, and said 1,600 buildings had been destroyed by the fires. It was estimated that of land had been burned. Evacuees who travelled north of Fort McMurray were advised to stay where they were, and not to come south on Highway 63 as the fire was still burning out of control. A boil-water advisory was issued for the entire area just after 11 a.m. (17:00 UTC). At 4:05 p.m., (22:05 UTC) the fire crossed Highway 63 at Airport Road (formerly Highway 69), south of Fort McMurray, and threatened the international airport, which had suspended commercial operations earlier in the day. The fire also forced the re-location of the Regional Emergency Operations Centre, which was originally in the vicinity of the airport. On May 4, the fire was found to be producing lightning and pyrocumulus clouds due to its heat and large size, which added to the risk of more fires. The fires became large enough to create a firestorm, creating its own weather in the form of wind influxes and lightning. The fire continued to spread south on May 5 across and forcing additional evacuations in the communities of Anzac, Gregoire Lake Estates and the Fort McMurray First Nation. These communities had accepted over 8,000 people during the initial evacuations. The Government of Alberta announced a plan to airlift approximately 8,000 of 25,000 people who had evacuated to oil sands work camps north of Fort McMurray, with assistance from a Royal Canadian Air Force Hercules aircraft, and other planes owned by energy companies operating in the oil sands. 1,110 personnel, 145 helicopters, 138 pieces of heavy equipment and 22 air tankers were employed to fight the fire. On May 6, the Royal Canadian Mounted Police began leading convoys to move 1,500 vehicles from oil sand work camps north of Fort McMurray, south along Highway 63 to Edmonton. The fire continued to grow out of control, spreading to by May 6, and by May 7. As the fire grew to the northeast, the community of Fort McKay, which hosted 5,000 evacuees from Fort McMurray, was itself put under an evacuation notice. Albertan officials anticipated that the fire would double in size, and reach the Saskatchewan border to the east. Remote growth, control and extinguishment The wildfire continued to spread through remote forested areas in the following week, reaching oilsand work camps south of Fort MacKay, forcing the evacuation of 19 oil sites and camps with approximately 8,000 workers. One lodge with 665 units was destroyed. The fire continued to grow, from on May 16 to on May 21 and even spread across in Saskatchewan. While the fire moved away from Fort McMurray, two explosions and poor air quality continued to prevent residents and rebuilding crews from returning to the town. By May 18, the fire had grown to and expanded into Saskatchewan. By mid-June, rain and cooler temperatures helped firefighters contain the fire, and on July 4, 2016, the fire was declared under control. The wildfire was still considered to be active over the following year, having smouldered in deeper layers of moss and dirt throughout the winter. On August 2, 2017, with no further or detection of hot spots by thermal surveys conducted over the summer, provincial officials declared the wildfire extinguished. Response Aid response The Government of Alberta declared a provincial state of emergency for Fort McMurray on May 4, 2016, and issued a formal request for assistance from the Canadian Armed Forces. The government and the Department of National Defence signed a memorandum of understanding on May 4, detailing required assistance and use of helicopters for rescue operations. Shortly after, a CC-130 Hercules departed CFB Trenton and helicopters were dispatched to the affected area. Alberta also requested assistance from the Government of Ontario, and Ontario committed to sending 100 firefighters and 19 supervisory staff, coordinated through the Canadian Interagency Forest Fire Centre. Other provinces across the country offered support. On May 5, four CL-415 water bombers from Quebec's Service aérien gouvernemental (fr) took off from the province to aid in the firefighting effort. Approximately 300 Royal Canadian Mounted Police officers provided security in the wildfire area. South Africa sent 301 firefighters at the request of the Canadian Interagency Forest Fire Centre at the end of May. The firefighters were trained during the month of April at a boot camp, in order how to learn to use special hoses instead of the leather-padded wooden sticks known as "firebeaters" they typically use in their home country due to a lack of water. Less than a week after being deployed, the South Africans went on strike over a wage dispute and were demobilized. Alberta Premier Rachel Notley vowed to address the issue and ensure that the firefighters were paid a minimum of 11.20 per hour as required by the province's labour laws, rather than the 15 per day allowance specified in their contract with their South African employer. The Alberta government provided an initial $1,250 per adult and $500 per dependent to cover living expenses for those who had evacuated. On May 4, the provincial government committed to match donations made to the Canadian Red Cross, as well as to donate an additional $2 million as seed money; the federal government pledged to match all donations to the Canadian Red Cross the next day, with a deadline set to May 31. , $54 million has been donated to the Red Cross, not including matching government contributions. On May 4, Public Safety Canada activated the International Charter Space and Major Disasters, thus providing for the charitable and humanitarian re-tasking of the diverse satellite assets of 15 space agencies. Later, Edmonton's Capital Region Housing Corporation (CRHC), along with the City of Edmonton, the Alberta Residential Landlord Association, and Yardi Canada Ltd., announced a partnership to create a registry of rental properties for Fort McMurray evacuees. The non-profit initiative would offer this service free of charge to landlords for the next six months. Some landlords had offered incentives to wildfire evacuees, including reduced security deposits, reduced rent, or free rent for a month or more. Prime Minister Justin Trudeau visited Fort McMurray on May 13 to survey the damage and promised ongoing aid from the federal government in the coming months. The Governor General, David Johnston, and Sophie, Countess of Wessex, met with first responders and visited the ruins of the Beacon Hill neighbourhood of Fort McMurray on June 24, 2016. Political controversy The Alberta government was criticized for cutting $15 million from the province's wildfire suppression budget in April 2016, just prior to the outbreak of the wildfire. While Premier Rachel Notley contended that wildfires were paid by emergency funds that would not be limited to combat a wildfire, local air tanker companies argued that the cuts created a personnel issue, and would make it more difficult to keep staff on duty during the wildfire season. Cuts were also made to fire preparation budgets, which funded activities such as creating fire breaks, but it is not certain that those activities would have been beneficial against a wildfire powerful enough to traverse the Athabasca River. The federal government was criticized after international assistance from Australia, Israel, Mexico, the Palestinian Authority, Russia, Taiwan, and the United States was offered in battling the fire, and turned down by Prime Minister Justin Trudeau. Russia specifically offered Ilyushin Il-76 firefighting aircraft that could handle up to 42 tons of fire suppression at one time. Trudeau said that while the offers were appreciated, they were unnecessary as firefighters from other Canadian provinces were gaining control of the situation. Trudeau was also criticized on May 6, 2016, for not visiting Fort McMurray and showing support, less than a week after the fire started. Trudeau responded that "showing up in Fort McMurray, when firefighters are busy trying to contain a massive raging wildfire, is not a particularly helpful thing," and comparisons were drawn to former Prime Minister Stephen Harper's visit to Kelowna, British Columbia the previous year. Trudeau visited Fort McMurray a week later on May 13, 2016. Impacts Communities and infrastructure Initial estimates from May 4 indicated that 1,600 structures in Fort McMurray were destroyed. Firefighters worked through May 6 and 7 to hold the line and protect the downtown and remaining homes in Fort McMurray. On May 9, this figure was revised to 2,400 structures, and about 85 to 90% of the community was reported undamaged. Overnight on May 16–17, two explosions occurred in the Thickwood and Dickensfield neighbourhoods, damaging 10 buildings and destroying three. The town's power grid sustained damage. Almost the entire Fort McMurray area was placed under a boil-water advisory during the fire, since untreated water was placed into the municipal water system to supply firefighters. The boil water advisory was lifted in all areas of Fort McMurray on August 17, 2016. Statistics Canada suspended enumeration activities for the 2016 Census in the Fort McMurray area on May 5. Alternative means to collect data from its residents were to be determined at a later date. Some census data was received early, and some residents sent their census data online after the evacuation. Statistics Canada was able to create an accurate 2016 census profile for Fort McMurray using this information, as well as Canada Revenue Agency income tax records, local birth and death records, and long-form census information collected by surveyors going door to door. The neighbourhoods of Waterways, Abasand, and Beacon Hill saw the heaviest damage from the wildfire. Until debris could be cleared, they were declared unsafe for re-occupation because of contamination from arsenic and heavy metals. Residents did not return to these neighbourhoods until the end of October 2016. Oil sands operations The wildfire halted oil sands production at facilities north of Fort McMurray. Shell Canada shut down output at its Albian Sands mining operation, located approximately north of Fort McMurray. The company said its priority was to get employees and their families out of the region, and provide capacity at its work camp for some of the evacuees. Shell also provided its landing strip to fly employees and their families to Calgary or Edmonton and provided two teams to support firefighting efforts in the area. Suncor Energy and Syncrude Canada also scaled back operations. Suncor's Millennium and North Steepbank mines were two of the largest and oldest oilsands mining operations in the Fort McMurray area, and Syncrude's Mildred Lake oilsands mine is located north of Fort McMurray. The companies accommodated another 2,000 evacuees each at their work camps. On May 7, Syncrude shut down all site and processing operations, removing 4,800 employees from the area. On May 16, all 665 rooms at Blacksands Executive Lodge, a work camp, burned in the wildfire. Earlier that day, about 8,000 people were ordered out of 19 camps; about 6,000 remained. By May 17, the fire appeared to reach the Noralta Lodge, a few kilometres east of Blacksands. Approximately one million barrels of oil a day, equal to a quarter of Canada's oil production, was halted as a result of the fire in May 2016. This continued into June at a rate of 700,000 barrels per day. The lost output was estimated to cost the Albertan economy $70 million per day, and was a contributing factor to rises in global oil prices. The scaled back operations, along with a refinery outage in Edmonton, caused many gas stations to run out of gas throughout Western Canada. Oil companies restored production and anticipated all financial impacts would wear off by the end of the third fiscal quarter. Costs Initial insurance payouts were estimated to total as much as C$9 billion if the entire community had to be rebuilt. By July 7, 2016, the Insurance Bureau of Canada (IBC) and Catastrophe Indices and Quantification Inc. (CatIQ) reported that insured damage was estimated to have reached $3.58 billion, making the wildfire the most expensive disaster in Canadian history, surpassing the 1998 ice storms in Quebec ($1.9 billion) and the 2013 Alberta floods ($1.8 billion). The 2011 Slave Lake Wildfire, which destroyed one-third of the town of Slave Lake, cost approximately $750 million and was the most expensive fire-related disaster in Canadian history. The larger damage estimates were a result of Fort McMurray being 10 times the size of Slave Lake. A further estimate based on current damage estimated insurance payouts reaching as high as $4.7 billion. Re-entry and recovery On May 18, the Alberta government provisionally announced a phased re-entry of residents into Fort McMurray between June 1 and 15, 2016, given that a set of key conditions were met: The wildfire no longer poses a threat and that hazardous areas can be secured; Local government can be re-established; and, Essential services such as emergency services, transportation, utilities and essential businesses can be re-established, as well as the infrastructure that supports these services. Residents were allowed to re-enter Fort McMurray and surrounding communities according to a schedule broken down into residential zones. The neighbourhoods of Waterways, Abasand, and Beacon Hill were severely burned, and were declared unsafe for reoccupation due to contamination from arsenic and heavy metals from leftover ash. 2,000 residents in these neighbourhoods were only allowed supervised visits to their homes, and relied on workers from the not-for-profit organization Team Rubicon to sift through leftover items. Between, August 31 and October 24, 2016, residents of 470 homes within the three neighbourhoods were able to move home. In the wake of the wildfire impact on Fort McMurray, the Regional Municipality of Wood Buffalo created a wildfire recovery plan, establishing a framework and governance structure for recovery efforts. Recovery funding was estimated to be above $4.5 billion: $615 million from federal, provincial and municipal governments; $319 million from the Canadian Red Cross; and $3.58 billion from the insurance industry. As of January 2018, 90% of wildfire claims have been processed according to the Insurance Bureau of Canada. Reconstruction of impacted communities is ongoing, and as of May 2018, 20% of the homes destroyed have been rebuilt. The Regional Municipality of Wood Buffalo updated their Wildfire Mitigation Strategy in January 2018, which conducted a risk assessment for wildfire behaviour. It also proposed clearing 867 hectares of vegetation, various access and safety standards for planned infrastructure and land development, educating members of the public on wildfire threats, cooperation and joint training between the municipal and provincial departments, and updates to emergency plans. The Regional Municipality of Wood Buffalo also raised awareness about rebuilding homes to ensure they are more resilient to fire. However, insurance companies only provide funds to restore pre-fire conditions, and an independent review by KPMG found that it was unlikely that this would occur. See also List of disasters in Canada List of fires in Canada Boreal forest of Canada References External links Fort McMurray Satellite Map – Alberta Government Fort McMurray & the Wood Buffalo Region wildfire recovery – Alberta Government Alberta Wildfires – Government of Canada Fort McMurray, Alberta wildfire – PyroCb Blog, Cooperative Institute for Meteorological Satellite Studies, University of Wisconsin Google Crisis Map – Fort McMurray Fire 2016 Current Alberta Wildland Fires MecElhatton, Heather, "Volunteer Truckers Help Save Burning Canadian Town", A Beautiful World. Minnesota Public Radio. Story of volunteer truckers delivering food, fuel, and supplies to firefighters and stranded motorists. Fort McMurray wildfire Fort McMurray wildfire Wildfires in Alberta Regional Municipality of Wood Buffalo Fort McMurray wildfire Natural disasters in Saskatchewan Division No. 18, Saskatchewan Fort McMurray wildfire Articles containing video clips

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2016%20California%20wildfires

2016 California wildfires

In 2016, a total of 7,349 fires had burned an area in California, according to the California Department of Forestry and Fire Protection. Climatologists had predicted an extreme version of El Niño, known as a Super El Niño, to occur during the winter of 2015–16. Although the Pacific Ocean’s warming water had been expected to bring strong storms to parts of the southwestern United States, actual precipitation totals generally underperformed those expectations. Early in 2016, The National Interagency Fire Center predicted that conditions from May through at least August would put much of the western United States in above-normal wildfire danger. Events In June, the United States Forest Service estimated that over 26 million trees had died across in the Sierra Nevada Mountains. This brought the number of dead trees to over 66 million during the past four years of drought. On August 15, the National Interagency Fire Center showed the state leading the nation in the quantity, size and intensity of wildfires. A day later, on August 16, San Bernardino County announced that nearly 85,000 people were evacuated because of the Blue Cut Fire near Cajon Pass. Authorities arrested a 40-year-old man in connection to the Clayton Fire, and charged him with 17 counts of arson. Fires Below is a list of all fires that exceeded during the 2016 California wildfire season, as well as the fires that caused significant damage. The information is taken from CAL FIRE's list of large fires, and other sources where indicated. 4S Ranch brush fire On Thursday, May 5, 2016, shortly before 3 P.M. PDT, a small brush fire ignited off the 15000 block of Dove Creek Road, in a creek bed, in 4S Ranch, San Diego County. As the fire began spreading eastward, students and staff at the nearby Oak Valley Middle School were ordered to stay indoors, though parents were allowed to pick up their children. However, as the fire continued to spread, evacuation orders were issued for some homes along Palomino Valley Road and Oak Valley Middle School, with the students from Oak Valley Middle School being relocated by bus to Westview High School. The sudden change caused some confusion and chaos among parents attempting to pick up their children, and drew criticism towards the last-minute evacuation plan. The brush fire quickly grew to , but within a couple of hours, the fire was contained and further growth was stopped. At 4:34 PM PDT, the evacuation orders for the homes on Palomino Valley Road were lifted, as the fire was brought to 90% containment. Just before 5:30 PM PDT, the brush fire was fully extinguished, and Rancho Santa Fe fire officials declared 100% containment of the fire. The fire did not cause any injuries or structural damage. The brush fire was determined to have been accidentally caused by sparks coming from a welder. See also List of California wildfires 2005 Labor Day brush fire 2016 Fort McMurray Wildfire 2014 California wildfires May 2014 San Diego County wildfires References External links California current incident information from CAL FIRE California wildfires on the US Forestry Incident Information System (InciWeb) 2016 California Fire Map (Calfire/Google Maps) California, 2016 Wildfires in California by year

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cold%20Fire%20%28wildfire%29

Cold Fire (wildfire)

The Cold Fire was a wildfire that started on August 2, 2016 in the Vaca Mountains, near Lake Berryessa and just west of the city of Winters, in Yolo County, northern California. The fire was contained by 6 PM on August 11 after burning a total of , including two buildings, causing an estimated $100,000 in damage. Events The fire was first reported at 4:36 pm on August 2 near Highway 128 west of Pleasants Valley Road. By sundown mandatory evacuations were ordered for Canyon Creek Campground and Golden Bear Estates. The following day, less than 24 hours after the fire was first reported, it had grown to over . A Red Cross shelter was briefly setup in Winters but was closed due to lack of use. By August 4, the third day, the fire had grown to , with 903 fire personnel members on the ground and the evacuation order for Golden Bear Estates had been lifted. By August 6, the fourth day, the fire had grown to with 1,625 fire personnel members on the ground and Highway 128 was reopened to traffic and Thompson Valley Road at Highway 128 being closed. The fire was contained by 6 PM on August 11. The Cold Fire caused an estimated $100,000 in damages. In total, acres had been burned and two hunting cabins had been destroyed. The cause of the fire remains under investigation. References 2016 California wildfires Wildfires in Yolo County, California Vaca Mountains History of Yolo County, California Winters, California

51244736

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/August%202016%20Western%20United%20States%20wildfires

August 2016 Western United States wildfires

The August 2016 Western United States Wildfires is a natural disaster in the United States with flames engulfing California, Idaho, Montana, Nevada, Oregon, Washington and Wyoming. Evacuations took place in Oregon, Nevada and Wyoming. See also 2016 California wildfires References 2016 in Nevada 2016 wildfires in the United States August 2016 events in the United States July 2016 events in the United States Wildfires in Nevada

51287984

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2016%20Portugal%20wildfires

2016 Portugal wildfires

The 2016 Portugal wildfires are a series of wildfires that burned across mainland Portugal and the Madeira archipelago in the north Atlantic Ocean during August 2016 that prompted the evacuation of more than one thousand people and destroyed at least 37 homes near Funchal on Madeira island. Flights were also disrupted at Cristiano Ronaldo International Airport due to high levels of smoke. At least seven major fires were burning out of control in the north of Portugal on August 9, according to officials, the fire of Arouca and S.Pedro do Sul was the biggest. The authorities say around 3,000 firefighters are trying to extinguish hundreds of forest fires across the country. An emergency was declared in Portugal's northern Norte Region as firefighters battled numerous wildfires. Fire in Madeira On 9 August 2016 a fire, allegedly by arson, started at the S. Roque parish in Madeira that quickly spread throughout the region of Southern Madeira and to its capital Funchal. Though still burning in several fronts, the fire was, according to Madeira's regional president Miguel Albuquerque, "under control". The statement was later qualified. Four deaths are attributed to the wildfire as well as a thousand displaced people. The five-star hotel "Choupana Hills" was also gutted by the flames. Three suspects of arson are currently detained and one of them is currently in pre-trial detention. Reactions The hashtag #PrayForPortugal trended on social media in response to the wildfires. International support The South Yorkshire Fire and Rescue service in the United Kingdom sent a large amount of specialist equipment to volunteer colleagues in Portugal after an appeal for equipment. The shipment included hose-reel fittings, ropes and tools. The European Union is helping Portugal combat the wildfires. Italy and Spain have sent three Canadair airplanes. Morocco is also sending two Canadair airplanes. East Timor is donating €2M to Portugal to help fight the fires and to help the victims. Russia is also expected to send air help due to a bilateral agreement between the two countries. Cristiano Ronaldo also donated £100,000 to his hometown of Funchal. See also List of wildfires August 2003 wildfires 2017 Portugal wildfires References 2016 in Portugal August 2016 events in Europe 2016 wildfires Fires in Portugal Natural disasters in Portugal Wildfires in Europe

51397478

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2016%20Washington%20wildfires

2016 Washington wildfires

The 2016 Washington wildfires season were a series of wildfires in the U.S. state of Washington, notable because of brush fires near the Hanford Nuclear Reservation, and because of brush fires near Spokane, Washington. During the summer of 2016 (in July and August particularly during the Range 12 fire), there was grave concern about the fires in eastern Washington due to the Hanford Nuclear Reservation in Benton County, Washington, and about rare and endangered species that may have been affected by the fire. Also of concern were the sheep and cattle killed during the fire. Range 12 fire main: Range 12 fire The Range 12 fire was started on July 31 and quickly grew to over , covering parts of Benton county and Yakima county, before being contained in August. The fire was the third in recent years to affect the area surrounding the Hanford Reach National Monument and the Arid Lands Ecology Reserve, but was contained during the earlier days of August through the use of controlled burns. Other fires In late July, two fires in eastern Yakima County and southern Grant County burned more than before being contained. In August, the area surrounding Spokane, the state's second largest city, was threatened with three active wildfires. In late August, Wellesley and Yale fires merged to form the Spokane Complex Fire. Mandatory evacuations were ordered for residents in the Moccasin Bay area of Spangle. By August 22, fires in Spokane County had destroyed 10 homes. The Hart Road Fire in nearby Lincoln County grew to more than and triggered the evacuation of nearby residents, and destroyed 11 homes. A series of lightning strike fires in the Olympic Mountains were visible from the Seattle area and lowered air quality to "moderate" levels as rated by the Puget Sound Clean Air Agency. On August 23, Governor Jay Inslee declared a state of emergency in 20 of Washington's 39 counties, mostly in Eastern Washington, citing limited local firefighting resources. Inslee blamed ongoing climate change for creating "explosive conditions" in the state's forests and wild lands, fueling stronger wildfires in recent years. Another pair of lightning strike fires in the Glacier Peak Wilderness created hazy conditions over Wenatchee to the east. List of notable fires References External links Inciweb NWCC – Northwest Fire Locations NWCC 2016 Annual Fire Report Wildfires in Washington (state) by year 2016 Washington (state) wildfires

52018850

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2003%20California%20wildfires

2003 California wildfires

The 2003 California wildfires were a series of wildfires that burned throughout the state of California during the year 2003. In total, 9,116 fires burned . In October, a major wildfire outbreak in Southern California burned more than 750,000 acres, destroyed thousands of homes, and killed two dozen people. Many of the victims were killed in their cars while trying to flee. Fires Below is a list of fires that exceeded during the 2003 fire season. The list is taken from CAL FIRE's list of large fires. References External links Wildfires 2003 California, 2003 2003

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2016%20Southeastern%20United%20States%20wildfires

2016 Southeastern United States wildfires

The 2016 Southeastern United States wildfires were a series of wildfires in the Southeastern United States in October and November 2016. , the U.S. Forest Service reported tracking 33 wildfires that had burned about . Context Firefighters from 21 states including Washington and Oregon were part of the effort to fight the blazes. North Carolina Governor Pat McCrory said 1600 firefighters fought 19 fires in his state, at a cost of $10 million since October 23. Arson is believed to be responsible for several fires in the Nantahala National Forest where 46,000 acres had burned as of November 18. The Asheville Regional Airport reported no rain for ten days after October 8, 2016, after which the area was considered to be in severe drought, while Cherokee, Clay and Macon Counties were considered to be in extreme drought. A month later these three counties and Graham and part of Swain were in exceptional drought, and ten other counties were in extreme drought. Only a trace of rain fell in the month ending November 15 and the airport reported a deficit of for the year 2016 as of November 18. As of December 8, even after rain, much of Georgia and Alabama continued to be in exceptional drought, while Tennessee and the western Carolinas were in extreme drought. Lightning and accidental human activity such as campfires may have started some fires. Poor air quality was an issue in Asheville and other parts of western North Carolina. Western North Carolina fires The Tellico Fire in North Carolina began October 23 in Swain County, North Carolina and had burned over . The Boteler Fire in Clay County, North Carolina began October 25 and had burned as of November 18. The Party Rock Fire in North Carolina, which McCrory called number two in the country, began November 5 and as of November 18 had burned and resulted in the evacuation of 1000 people in the areas of Bat Cave, Chimney Rock and Lake Lure. People were allowed to return to Chimney Rock on November 21, 10 days after they left. Firefighters who came mostly from the eastern part of the state had watched buildings in the towns while local fire departments covered their areas. Lake Lure was the headquarters for operations. On November 30 a man was arrested for setting two Macon County fires. As of December 6, substantial rain had helped greatly in the effort to bring under control as many as 34 fires which had burned 60,000 acres. North Georgia fires The Rough Ridge fire in the Cohutta Wilderness of Georgia, believed to have started from a lightning strike October 16, 2016, had burned almost by November 20, making it one of the largest fires ever in Georgia. The Rock Mountain fire was about and caused the evacuation of Dream Catcher Cover north of Tate City. East Tennessee fires On November 11, 2016, a Chattanooga man was arrested for setting three separate fires north and west of the city. Over 500 acres had been burned in connection with these fires. Governor Bill Haslam issued a burn ban for 51 counties starting on November 14 through December 15. On November 16, 2016, two men were arrested for arson in separate wildfire incidents in Tennessee. In Sequatchie County, an Alabama man admitted to dropping a cigarette in a pile of leaves, watching it burn and leaving without putting it out. In Monroe County, a resident was arrested for starting a burn on personal property, against the burn ban, that got out of control. , Tennessee Division of Forestry reported 64 fires that had burned 17,734 acres. The largest was in Morgan County in the White Oak Circle area covered about 1900 acres but was contained. Another on Neddy Mountain in Cocke County had burned 1116 acres but was mostly contained. By November 21, just 95 acres were reported still burning in Tennessee, and at least half of the state's fires were reported to be started in connection with arson. On November 28, the Chimney Tops 2 fire in the Chimney Tops of the Great Smoky Mountains National Park spread with the aid of strong winds and dry conditions, the fire quickly broke into multiple fires and spread across the mountains above and around Gatlinburg, Tennessee. By the evening hours the fire had reached the downtown area of Gatlinburg, resulting in the evacuation of over 14,000 people, along with causing damage in and around the town. By November 29, the wildfires had claimed at least three lives. An additional four people were later confirmed dead the next day. As of December 4, the Chimney Tops 2 fire had burned 17,006 acres. A total of 14 people died and 134 others were injured in the Smoky Mountains fires, while over 2,400 structures were burned. Damages were totaled to over $500 Million. On December 8, the burn ban was lifted for four of the 51 counties in Tennessee to aid cleanup of tornadoes that happened on November 29 in southeast Tennessee. See also Droughts in California List of wildfires References 2016 in Georgia (U.S. state) 2016 in North Carolina 2016 in South Carolina 2016 in Tennessee 2016 wildfires in the United States Fires in Georgia (U.S. state) Natural disasters in Georgia (U.S. state) Fires in North Carolina Natural disasters in North Carolina Fires in South Carolina Natural disasters in South Carolina Fires in Tennessee Natural disasters in Tennessee

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2016%20Great%20Smoky%20Mountains%20wildfires

2016 Great Smoky Mountains wildfires

The 2016 Great Smoky Mountains wildfires, also known as the Gatlinburg wildfires, were a complex of wildfires which began in late November 2016. Some of the towns most impacted were Pigeon Forge and Gatlinburg, both near Great Smoky Mountains National Park. The fires claimed at least 14 lives, injured 190, and is one of the largest natural disasters in the history of Tennessee. By December 12, the fires had burned more than 10,000 acres (15 square miles) inside the national park, and 6,000 acres in other parts of the area. At least 14,000 area residents and tourists were forced to evacuate, while over 2,000 buildings were damaged and/or destroyed. One of the largest wildfires was the Chimney Tops 2 Fire, which burned more than 10,000 acres, and closed the Chimney Tops Trail. The Great Smoky Mountains wildfires were the deadliest wildfires in Tennessee, as well as the deadliest wildfires in the eastern U.S. since the Great Fires of 1947, which killed 16 people in Maine. In addition, the fires were also the most deadly and destructive of the 2016 Southeastern United States wildfires. American country singer and notable local resident Dolly Parton was among many notable figures to pitch in to assist victims. Progression The Chimney Tops 2 Fire was originally reported on November 23, 2016. No suppression activities were initiated and on November 24, 2016, park fire officials delineated containment boundary made of natural features which were hoped to contain the fire. On November 27, while the fire was still inside the containment boundary, three Chinook helicopters dumped water on the fire in an effort to mitigate its spread. Humidity values for this day dropped to as low as 17 percent during a period of "Exceptional" drought. A National Weather Service report issued on Sunday predicted wind gusts up to 40 mph the following day. On November 28, park employees observed that the fire had spread to the Chimneys Picnic Area north of and outside the containment boundary. Shortly thereafter fire was reported some distance further to the North in the park behind a residential area known as Mynatt Park. Throughout the afternoon and evening of November 28, numerous fires developed in the Gatlinburg and Pigeon Forge areas as a result of wind-driven sparks or downed power lines. Strong southerly winds (with wind gusts up to 87 mph) created by mountain waves blew sparks into the Gatlinburg and Pigeon Forge areas and knocked down trees (which in turn started fires when they hit power lines). A separate named fire destroyed much of the Cobbly Nob subdivision east of Gatlinburg. Because of power outages to some pumping stations on November 28 and because other pumping stations burned, hydrants quickly went dry on November 28, and Gatlinburg Fire Chief Greg Miller first asked for help from all of Sevier County and later from the entire state. Damage from the fires also prevented firefighters from communicating with each other through cell phones as the radio system became overloaded. Gatlinburg's emergency operations center phone system went down when it lost power. Even the 911 system could not handle all the calls it received, and calls intended for Sevier County went to Putnam County instead. Investigation and arrests Two unnamed juveniles were initially charged with aggravated arson in connection to the fires; however, charges were later dropped due to lack of evidence as well as language in an agreement between the State of Tennessee and the Department of the Interior which excluded state jurisdiction from prosecuting criminal activities that occurred entirely within the park. Throughout the course of the investigation which revealed that many of the area fires were likely caused by embers wind-blown from the existing larger fire, local officials declined to release any information about the fires or response, citing an erroneous interpretation of a gag order. Reactions President Barack Obama ordered federal disaster relief funds to go to the hard hit area of Sevier County in response to the vast devastation. President-elect Donald Trump tweeted: "My thoughts and prayers are with the great people of Tennessee during these terrible wildfires. Stay safe!" Governor Bill Haslam viewed the fires from above, and said it was "a little numbing" to see the extent of the damage. Noting that the region is a "special place" in Tennessee, he said "millions of families have come here and will continue to come here." Commenting on the devastation, country music star Dolly Parton (originally from Sevierville) said she was "heartbroken". Her theme park, Dollywood (in Pigeon Forge), was largely spared from damage. Telethons A telethon, benefiting fire victims, was held December 9, in Nashville. The event featured country music artists such as Kenny Chesney, Brad Paisley, John Rich, John Oates, and Kristian Bush, and Dolly Parton. $9 million was raised. Parton hosted another telethon Tuesday, December 13, also in Nashville. All of the proceeds raised went to help those who lost their homes in the wildfires. Her fund, the "My People Fund", provided $1,000 a month for six months to over 900 families affected by the wildfires, finally culminating with $5,000 to each home in the final month due to increased fundraising, for a total of $10,000 per family. Aftermath Soon after the fires were contained, Gatlinburg Mayor Mike Warner implored vacationers "If you really want to do something for Gatlinburg, come back and visit us." Stefanie Benjamin, Associate Professor of Hospitality and Tourism at the University of Tennessee noted that despite negative press from the fire, the region "was able to recuperate fairly quickly." The impact of the "My People Fund"'s financial relief, as well as the overall impacts of the disaster on residents, was studied by University of Tennessee College of Social Work professor Stacia West, who examined the impact of cash transfers in poverty alleviation. West surveyed 100 recipients of the emergency relief funds in April 2017 on topics including questions on housing, financial impact, physical and emotional health, and sources of support, with a follow-up survey conducted in December 2017. West found that the "My People Fund," in tandem with traditional disaster response, gave families the ability to make decisions that were most beneficial to them, and concluded that unconditional cash support may be more beneficial for disaster relief than conditional financial support. The report cited the impact of the monthly financial disbursements from the "My People Fund" on residents' emergency savings: "Following the monthly disbursements of unconditional cash assistance, participants were able to return to baseline financial stability reported prior to the wildfire, and improve their ability to set aside savings for hypothetical future emergencies." On May 24, 2018, a federal lawsuit was filed against the Great Smoky Mountains National Park on behalf of victims seeking damages for the failure to stop the Chimney Tops 2 fire before it left the park. U.S. District Judge Ronnie Greer ruled September 8, 2020 that the National Park Service failed in its efforts to warn people in the area about the fires, meaning the park service can be held financially responsible and making a jury trial possible. Greer dismissed the suit in 2022 over "a paperwork error" but was overruled by an appellate panel in August 2023. The discovery process comes next and both sides have the opportunity for summary judgment. See also 2016 Southeastern United States wildfires Appalachian-Blue Ridge forests Burned area emergency response English Mountain, also in the Great Smoky Mountains and scene of significant wildfires in April 2016 November 2016 Israel fires Southern Appalachian spruce-fir forest References 21st-century mass murder in the United States 2016 in Tennessee 2016 murders in the United States 2016 natural disasters in the United States 2016 wildfires in the United States Arson in Tennessee December 2016 crimes in the United States East Tennessee Gatlinburg, Tennessee Great Smoky Mountains Great Smoky Mountains National Park Mass murder in 2016 Natural disasters in Tennessee November 2016 crimes in the United States Pigeon Forge, Tennessee Sevier County, Tennessee Wildfires in the United States Wildfires caused by arson

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2017%20Chile%20wildfires

2017 Chile wildfires

A series of wildfires burned across Chile during January 2017. Impact On January 27–28, a wildfire described as the worst in Chile's modern history killed at least 11 people, including five firefighters and destroyed the town of Santa Olga in the central Maule Region, displacing thousands of people. Reactions On January 20, the Chilean government declared a state of emergency in response to the wildfires. Chilean President Michelle Bachelet cancelled her planned visit to Punta Cana, Dominican Republic, for the fifth CELAC Summit on January 24–25 due to the wildfires. On late February 2022, five years after the fire Aída Baldini, manager of the wildfire division of the National Forest Corporation, declared that their budget to fight fires had increased five times. International support had more than 130 firefighters in Chile at one point. sent firefighting equipment and tools. sent two MAFFS-equipped C-130 Hercules. provided planes and helicopters. provided economic support. sent more than 20 firefighters. The sent a team of eight to Santiago. sent 69 firefighters. has donated US$215,000. has pledged aid to Chile. has pledged aid to Chile. sent four people. sent more than 20 firefighters. sent 21 firefighters. sent more than 20 firefighters. sent 52 firefighters. sent an Ilyushin Il-76 and more than 20 firefighters. provided economic aid. sent 64 firefighters. sent firefighting equipment and tools. The has donated US$5 million. The sent four specialists from the U.S. Forest Service, and a private company sent an Evergreen 747 Supertanker with a crew of 12. The United States has also contributed US$1,580,000. sent 80 firefighters. See also 2012 Araucanía wildfires 2021 Argentine Patagonia wildfires Great Fire of Valparaíso List of wildfires 2023 Chile wildfires References wildfires Wildfires in Chile Chile wildfires 2017 disasters in South America

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2017%20California%20wildfires

2017 California wildfires

In terms of property damage, 2017 was the most destructive wildfire season on record in California at the time, surpassed by only the 2018 season and the 2020 season, with a total of 9,560 fires burning of land, according to the California Department of Forestry and Fire Protection, including five of the 20 most destructive wildland-urban interface fires in the state's history. Throughout 2017, the fires destroyed or damaged more than 10,000 structures in the state (destroyed 9,470, damaged 810), a higher tally than the previous nine years combined. State data showed that the large wildfires killed 47 people – 45 civilians and 2 firefighters – almost higher than the previous 10 years combined. The total property damage and total amount of burned land were both surpassed by the 2018 California wildfires. Throughout the early months of 2017, there was heavy rainfall over most of California, which triggered widespread flooding, thus temporarily mitigating the state's historic drought conditions. However, according to a report published by the National Interagency Fire Center, the potential for large fires was "expected to remain near normal through the spring, but once fine fuels dry out, there will likely be a spike in grass fire activity." In December 2017, strong Santa Ana winds triggered a new round of wildfires, including the massive Thomas Fire in Ventura County. At the time, the Thomas Fire was California's largest modern wildfire, which has since been surpassed by the Mendocino Complex's Ranch Fire in 2018. The December 2017 fires forced over 230,000 people to evacuate, with the 6 largest fires burning over and more than 1,300 structures. During the year, 5 of the 20 most destructive wildfires in the state's history burned between October and December: #1 Tubbs, #6 Nuns, #7 Thomas, #11 Atlas, and #17 Redwood Valley. The wildfires collectively caused at least $18.0 billion (2018 USD) in damages, including $13.2 billion in insured losses, $3 billion in other economic losses, and $1.8 billion in fire suppression costs, making the 2017 California fires the second-costliest on record. The total economic cost, including fire suppression, insurance, direct and indirect economic losses, and recovery expenditures is estimated at about $180 billion (2017 USD). This number includes economic harm to the wine industry, where several wineries in Napa and Sonoma were destroyed, and where many wine grapes were severely damaged by smoke. Cal Fire spent $700 million during fiscal year 2017, far exceeding the approximately $426 million the agency had budgeted that year for fire suppression. This made 2017 the most expensive firefighting year on record in California state history. According to the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, 2017 will be remembered as a year of extremes. It was the third-warmest year on record for the United States, and it was the second-hottest in California, bringing to the surface the question of long-term climate change and its contribution to the 2017 California fires. The hotter temperatures dry out vegetation, making them easier to burn, predisposing vulnerable regions like California to more wildfires in the coming decades as temperatures continue to rise and rainfall continues to decline. Historically, it has been estimated that prior to 1850, about 4.5 million acres (17,000 km²) burned yearly, in fires that lasted for months. Wildfire maps This section contains maps of the locations and burn areas of the fires that occurred during the largest outbreaks of the season. The burn areas of some major fires are included in some of the maps. Wildfires Below is a list of all fires that exceeded during the 2017 California wildfire season, as well as the fires that caused significant damage. The information is taken from CAL FIRE's list of large fires, and other sources where indicated. October Northern California wildfires During the month of October, a series of wildfires broke out throughout Napa, Lake, Sonoma, Mendocino, and Butte counties during severe fire weather conditions, effectively leading to a major red flag warning from much of the northern California area. In the extreme conditions, small fires quickly grew to become massive conflagrations spanning from 1,000 to well over 20,000 acres within a single day. The fires destroyed an estimated 8,900 structures, killed at least 44 people, burned over of land, and forced over 20,000 people to evacuate. December Southern California wildfires Multiple wildfires ignited in December across Los Angeles, San Bernardino, Ventura, San Diego, Riverside, Santa Barbara Counties. The fires were exacerbated by unusually powerful and long-lasting Santa Ana winds, we had no rain in sight, cause of the drought, it has been driest December years ever record since 1989, and 1999. as well as large amounts of dry vegetation grown, due to large amounts of precipitation earlier in the year. The fires burned over , and caused traffic disruptions, school closures, hazardous air quality conditions, and massive power outages. California Governor Jerry Brown declared a state of emergency in Ventura and Los Angeles Counties, and Los Angeles Mayor Eric Garcetti declared a state of emergency for the city. The largest fire was the Thomas Fire, which grew to 281,893 acres, becoming California's largest modern wildfire at the time, since surpassed by the Mendocino Complex's Ranch Fire in 2018. See also List of California wildfires May 2014 San Diego County wildfires 2008 California wildfires October 2007 California wildfires 2017 California floods Climate change in California References External links 2017 Statewide Fire Map, Google 2017 California fires information - CalFire California, 2017 2017

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/June%202017%20Portugal%20wildfires

June 2017 Portugal wildfires

A series of four initial deadly wildfires erupted across central Portugal in the afternoon of 17 June 2017 within minutes of each other, resulting in at least 66 deaths and 204 injured people. The majority of deaths took place in the Pedrógão Grande municipality, when a fire swept across a road filled with evacuees escaping in their cars. Portuguese officials dispatched more than 1,700 firefighters nationwide to combat the blazes and Prime Minister António Costa declared three days of national mourning. Spain, France, Morocco and Italy deployed firefighters and Water Bombers to help extinguish the fires. Although most early official reports pointed to a dry thunderstorm as the cause of the tragedy, the President of the Portuguese Firefighters League expressed his conviction the fire was sparked by arsonists. Four months later, the October 2017 Iberian wildfires would cause 45 deaths in Portugal and four in Spain, for a total of 115 deaths (111 in Portugal, 4 in Spain) between the two incidents. Background An intense heat wave preceded the fires, with many areas of Portugal seeing temperatures in excess of . During the afternoon of 17 June, a total of 156 fires erupted across the country, particularly in mountainous areas north-northeast of Lisbon. The fires began in the Pedrógão Grande municipality before spreading dramatically causing a firestorm. Dry thunderstorms preceded the event and may have ignited some fires although arson has not been eliminated as a cause: the National Director of the Judiciary Police, Almeida Rodrigues, has stated that the police, along with the National Republican Guard, have allegedly since found the tree that started the fire when it was struck by lightning. It is not known how this tree was identified out of the many thousands of other burnt trees. The forests of Pinhal Interior Norte, where Pedrógão Grande is located, are predominately composed of farmed Eucalyptus and pine trees, the Eucalyptus having surpassed pine as the dominant tree in the country in the last ten years. Events At least 66 people died nationwide in the fires—the largest loss of life due to wildfires in Portugal's history. At least 204 people were injured, including 13 firefighters; five people—four firefighters and one child—were in critical condition. Two firefighters were also reported missing. A total of of land was burned by the fires as of 20 June. Of this, was in the Pedrógão Grande area. The greatest loss of life took place on a rural road in Pedrógão Grande, where 47 people died in or near their cars when a fire overtook the area; 30 people died while trapped in their vehicles while the other 17 died nearby trying to escape on foot. Another 11 people died in Nodeirinho, near the IC8 road. Twelve people survived near Mó Grande as fire overtook the roads by taking refuge in a large water tank near the motorway. Dozens of small communities were severely affected. Prime Minister António Costa called the disaster "the greatest tragedy we have seen in recent years in terms of forest fires". Three days of national mourning were declared beginning on 18 June. Arriving at Pedrógão Grande before midnight on 17 June, President Marcelo Rebelo de Sousa was visibly shaken, and gave long hugs to Jorge Gomes, the Secretary of State of Internal Administration (who had been on the scene since the fire broke out), Valdemar Ramos, the Mayor of Pedrógão Grande and, after addressing the journalists, Constança Urbano de Sousa, the Minister of Internal Administration. The President met with survivors who were evacuated to Leiria. More than 1,700 firefighters were deployed to combat the fires. France and Spain provided a collective five water-bombing planes along with 200 members of the Military Emergencies Unit and the European Union began coordinating international relief efforts on 18 June. Many people were evacuated to neighboring Avelar, where residents provided them with shelter. Low-hanging smoke prevented helicopters from providing support, hampering firefighting efforts. Some survivors criticized inadequate response from the government, claiming no firefighters reached them for hours after the blaze began. They also stated poor forestry planning and "depopulation of remote villages that left many wooded areas untended" were to blame. In the afternoon of 20 June, according to reports, one of the foreign aid Canadair water bombers crashed over Pedrógão Grande, though Secretary of State of Internal Administration Jorge Gomes could not confirm the reports. Later, the National Authority for Civil Defence dismissed all reports of a plane crash, attributing eye-witness reports of the crash to a gas explosion on a camper trailer. Reactions In Rome, Pope Francis led thousands of people in silent prayer for the victims. The leaders of China, Greece, Italy, Germany, Canada, India and Brazil also sent condolences. The Spanish prime minister, Mariano Rajoy, tweeted that he was "stunned by the tragedy in Pedrógão Grande", and offered to provide any assistance necessary. Christos Stylianides of the European Commission expressed "condolences to those that have lost loved ones", adding that "the EU is fully ready to help. All will be done to assist the authorities and people of Portugal at this time of need." French president Emmanuel Macron tweeted: "Solidarity with Portugal, hit by terrible fires. Our thoughts are with victims. France makes its aid available to Portugal." Other information On the afternoon of 18 June, the Portugal national team, playing against Mexico for the FIFA Confederations Cup in Russia, donned black armbands in remembrance of the victims, and a minute of silence was observed prior to kickoff. António Guterres, Secretary-General of the United Nations, himself Portuguese, said he was shocked by the tragedy and pledged to offer all needed assistance. The Portuguese winner of the Eurovision Song Contest 2017, Salvador Sobral, announced on 19 June 2017 that he would donate all the profits from the sales of his CDs sold during a concert in Ourém to the people of Pedrógão Grande and the relief efforts in the town. References 2017 disasters in Portugal 2017 in Portugal 2017 wildfires June 2017 events in Europe Leiria District Fires in Portugal Natural disasters in Portugal Wildfires in Europe 2017 fires in Europe

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2017%20British%20Columbia%20wildfires

2017 British Columbia wildfires

On July 6, 2017, a two-hectare wildfire began west of 100 Mile House, British Columbia, Canada marking the beginning of the record-breaking 2017 wildfire season in British Columbia. On July 7, 56 new fires started throughout British Columbia (BC) leading to several evacuation alerts, orders and the declaration of a provincial state of emergency by the Government of British Columbia. By September 12, 158 fires were burning throughout the province. A total of 12,161 square kilometres (1.2 million hectares) had burned by the end of the 2017 fire season, the largest total area burned in a fire season in recorded history (1.3% of BC total area). This record was broken the following year, with five of BC's worst 10 fire seasons occurring since 2010. However, the 2017 fire season was also notable for the largest number of total evacuees in a fire season (65,000 people), as well as for the largest single fire ever in British Columbia. Research indicates that human-caused climate change played a significant role in the fires. Fire progression On July 7, the first of many major fires began, starting at two hectares and quickly progressing to be eight times larger by that evening, requiring an evacuation alert that same day. By July 7, 140 fires had started throughout BC, most of them in the central interior. The fires were aggressive and grew quickly, prompting a state of emergency as well as several evacuation alerts and orders. The next day, 182 total fires were active throughout the province prompted the issuing of up to 20 evacuation alerts and orders. The Emergency Operating Centre in Prince George was activated, and Emergency Social Services opened a reception centre and shelter at the College of New Caledonia. Within three days, the first major fire, that started at two hectares, had grown to 4,000 hectares resulting in a mandatory evacuation order with up to 2,000 residents evacuated. By the following day over 10,000 Williams Lake residents were on an evacuation alert. On July 11, a total of 200 active fires and 4,000 evacuees registered in Prince George, led to addition lodging at the University of Northern British Columbia 2017's fire season caused the closure of Highway 97 from Kersley, south of Quesnel, all the way south to Pavilion (along Highway 99), and south of Ashcroft. It also closed Bella Coola Highway to westbound traffic and created evacuation alerts the entire length of the Bella Coola Highway from Precipice to the junction with Williams Lake. No other fire season had had this breadth of large fires across the province. Three fires have achieved particularly notable sizes of over 100,000 hectares. First, the Hanceville Fire resulted from the merger of the Hanceville, Riske Creek and Raven Lake fires along Highway 20. As of August 20, the fire reached its largest size of 227,000 hectares, spreading as far south as Gang Ranch west of 100 Mile House. The Ashcroft Fire (also known as the Elephant Hill Fire) started on the Ashcroft Reserve, and spread north of Highway 99 to Green Lake, east of 100 Mile House. Finally the Nazko Complex started as a series of smaller fires west of Quesnel, two of which were notable in their own right, the Baezaeko River Fire, and the Tautri Lake Complex. These fires merged August 18, 2017, along with the Chezacut Fire and the Arc Mountain Fire, to form the Nazko Complex at over 432,000 hectares. This single fire was later renamed the Plateau Complex, centred on the Chilcotin Plateau. Overall this behemoth fire covered a combined area of 545,151 hectares, making it the largest fire in B.C.'s recorded history (roughly the same size as Prince Edward Island). This fire was the result of nearly 20 separate fires merging. State of emergency On July 7, a provincial state of emergency was declared by Todd Stone, Minister of Transportation and Infrastructure, on behalf of the Government of British Columbia. The state of emergency was extended on July 19 and again on August 4, and again on August 18, and again on September 1. This was the first state of emergency for British Columbia in 14 years, and the longest state of emergency in the province's history. On September 15, the state of emergency finally ended at midnight. Cause and contributing factors A combination of dry lightning and human-caused fires started the 2017 BC wildfires. Human-caused climate change also played a significant role. Human-caused fires were both accidental and intentional; all wildfires in BC are investigated to determine the fire origin and cause. Fire bans and restrictions were put in place to limit further human-caused fires. A study by researchers at Environment and Climate Change Canada found that climate change played a major role in the fires. They concluded that “the risk factors affecting the event, and the area burned itself, were made substantially greater by anthropogenic climate change... and that anthropogenic climate change increased the area burned by a factor of 7–11.” Heat waves and a lack of rainfall throughout the province leading up to the wildfires had dried out vegetation and soil. Also, pine forests with many pine trees killed by mountain pine beetle provided optimal fuel for fires. Considering these contributing factors, most areas of BC were rated as at extreme or high risk of fire. The wildfires grew in size so quickly because of strong winds, in some regions up to 70 km/h. On July 4, a car crash on Highway 1 near Cherry Creek caused a 15-hectare fire that was later contained by a crew of 47 fire fighters, 11 planes and a helicopter. Incidents More than 39,000 people were evacuated from their homes and 30,000 cattle were threatened. The wildfires reportedly destroyed over 300 buildings ranging from homes and barns to commercial structures. On July 15, a fire helicopter under contract to the BC Wildfire Service crashed in the Chilcotin. The only crew on board was a pilot who suffered non-life-threatening injuries. Resources As of August 13, 3,906 firefighters were deployed to fight the fires, including 647 out-of-province personnel and 1,606 contractors. Crews fought the fires with the assistance of 233 helicopters and airplanes. In addition, 50 Australian firefighters, 80 Fire and Emergency New Zealand firefighters and 108 fire personnel from Mexico came to BC's aid. Over 15 reception centres opened province-wide. In addition, five cities, from Surrey to Williams Lake opened group lodging centres for evacuees. The Red Cross opened support centres in Kamloops and Williams Lake and provided assistance to those affected by the fires with funds from donors, the federal government and the province of BC, as promised by Premier Christy Clark. On September 5, 2017, Canadian Minister of Agriculture Lawrence MacAulay announced that farmers and ranchers impacted by the wildfires would be provided $20 million in aid by various levels of government. See also List of disasters in Canada List of fires in Canada List of fires in British Columbia List of wildfires References Further reading External links British Columbia Wildfires 2017. Web archive collection of news articles, emergency services updates, and social media websites related to the 2017 wildfires in British Columbia. Collected by University of British Columbia and selected in collaboration with the University of Victoria, Simon Fraser University, and Vancouver Island University Libraries. Wildfires 2017 wildfires in Canada July 2017 events in Canada August 2017 events in Canada September 2017 events in Canada 2017

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2017%20Washington%20wildfires

2017 Washington wildfires

The 2017 Washington wildfires were a series of wildfires that burned over the course of 2017, a year that set weather records for heat and aridity in both Western Washington and Eastern Washington. Timeline of events Fire season officially began on April 15. Training of state fire crews was conducted in May, as well as training of Washington National Guard in helitack insertion for fire crews. On the morning of August 1, smoke from BC fires pushed into the Seattle area, rapidly making Mount Rainier invisible on a cloudless day. In early August, heavy smoke from British Columbia over Seattle earned the social media title "". Mid-month, several large fires in the state's Cascades Range were ignited by lightning. On August 8, the city of Seattle recorded 52 straight days without rain, a new record. The first measurable rainfall at Seattle-Tacoma International Airport (Sea-Tac) was 0.02 inches in mid-August, setting a record 55 day dry streak. On September 2, the Governor of Washington, Jay Inslee, declared a state of emergency across all Washington counties due to wildfires. On September 5, ash from the Central Washington fires fell "like snow" on Seattle and as far west as Grays Harbor County which borders the Pacific Ocean. University of Washington meteorology professor Cliff Mass said the situation in Seattle with "a smoke cloud so dense one would think it is low stratus deck" was unprecedented in his 30 years of experience. The Air Quality Index reached "hazardous" in Spokane, the worst of six levels; it had reached hazardous the day before in Newport, Washington, the worst in the country. On September 5, Cle Elum-Roslyn School District announced the start of the school year would be postponed, and on the 6th, all classes and events in Ellensburg School District were canceled until September 11, due to unhealthy indoor air quality. The first significant rain wasn't until after mid September. By the end of the summer, the official weather station at Sea-Tac, representing Western Washington's conditions, had recorded the hottest, driest summer since recordkeeping began with just over of rain. Eastern Washington also had a very dry year with Spokane setting a new record of 80 days without measurable rain. A climate scientist at University of Idaho said that the extremes caused greater fire activity and were due to climate change, but not necessarily linked to human causes. List of fires Leavenworth Fire, May Spartan Fire, June Sutherland Canyon and Straight Hollow fires, near Quincy, June Diamond Creek Fire in Pasayten Wilderness, started late July and spread to Canada near Manning Provincial Park on August 31 Noisy Creek Fire, in Colville National Forest, began July 15 Monument Hill Fire caused partial evacuation of Quincy in August "Smokezilla": smoke from 2017 British Columbia wildfires affected Seattle in August Norse Peak Fire began in August, caused closure of Chinook Pass highway Jolly Mountain Fire began on August 11, evacuations began August 31 On September 5, the Eagle Creek Fire jumped the Columbia Gorge from Oregon into Skamania County. Resources An infrared thermography-capable RC-26 surveillance aircraft and support crew from Washington Air National Guard were deployed to Fairchild Air Force Base in Spokane on August 12 in support of firefighting. On August 29, the Washington Military Department's Emergency Operation Center at Camp Murray was activated in response to the Jolly Mountain Fire. On September 5, the U.S. Army said 200 Washington-based soldiers were to be trained and sent to the Umpqua North Complex fires in Oregon's Umpqua National Forest. Further reading References External links Northwest Interagency Coordination Center (NWCC) for Oregon and Washington Wildfire resources, Washington Department of Natural Resources Season timeline, Central Washington University (Ellensburg) Wildfires 2017 May 2017 events in the United States June 2017 events in the United States July 2017 events in the United States August 2017 events in the United States September 2017 events in the United States

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2017%20Oregon%20wildfires

2017 Oregon wildfires

The 2017 Oregon wildfires were a series of wildfires that burned over the course of 2017. The 2017 fire season in the state of Oregon was a particularly notable one. There has been a trend for the last three decades that shows an increase in the overall number of wildfires as well as the fire season length in the state of Oregon. In 2017 Oregon experienced a total of 1,069 reported wildfires: with 779 human ignited and 290 ignited by lightning strikes. These fires burned a total area of 451,863 acres. The catalyst for these fires was the abnormal weather patterns that persisted throughout 2017. Fire season typically begins in Oregon in May. Fires burning through September 2017 led to the month being dubbed "Smoketember" in Oregon, with air quality in western Oregon listed from "Unhealthy" to "Hazardous" in early weeks. NASA published images of the Oregon, shown the typically green state to be highly obscured by smoke, as seen from space. 2017 was unusual for the large number of fires occurring west of the Cascade Range in dense Douglas-fir forest in contrast to the frequent-fire pine ecosystems to the east. Large fires include the Chetco Bar Fire in Curry County, Oregon, and the Eagle Creek Fire in the Columbia River Gorge National Scenic Area, which was started by illegal fireworks use. Fires in the Columbia River Gorge shut down Interstate 84, the state's major east–west freeway, for several days in early September. 2017 climate in Oregon The 2016/2017 winter in Oregon was the second wettest winter in the past 75 years. Between the dates of October 1, 2016, and April 26, 2017, Portland International Airport received 45.5 inches (116 centimeters) of rain. The month of February 2017 was the wettest February on record in Oregon with 10.36 inches (26 centimeters) of rain. During the month of August, the weather station at Portland International Airport recorded a monthly average temperature of 73.6 degrees Fahrenheit (23.1 C) with the daily average temperature hitting 87 degrees Fahrenheit (30.5 C). The average temperature during the month of August 2017 was five degrees higher than the average August temperature recorded since 1941. It stands to be the second hottest August on record. The extreme winter and summer weather that occurred in 2017 was met by some dangerous weather patterns in the late summer months. Early August through September in Southern Oregon saw several waves of thunderstorms. These storm systems brought rainfall which helped slow the growth of existing wildfires. However, the storms also brought lighting which resulted in the ignition of new fires. These storms travel on fast moving paths. After one these storms moves over an area, it quickly returns to a hot dry state. This allows for the newly ignited fires to spread quickly and develop into full wildfires. Significance of the 2017 fire season The future climate in the Pacific Northwest is expected to be significantly different. Projections show that annual temperatures will rise faster than the global norm. Although temperatures will be higher, winters are expected to experience more rainfall. These seasonal extremes are exactly the type of trends that were experienced in 2017. Climatic patterns such as these provide ample rainfall throughout the spring which allows for high rates of plant growth. The high temperatures in the summer then quickly dries up the new growth. This leads to large spread availability of dry grasses and small diameter fuels. The combination of these climate driven phenomenon are what led to the extreme fire season in Oregon in 2017. Cheatgrass Another problem plaguing Oregon in 2017 was invasive cheatgrass. This grass has its origins in Eurasia and has become a huge problem in Oregon. In burned areas this grass quickly replaces native vegetation such as sagebrush. Cheatgrass is especially dangerous in regards to wildfires because it is highly dependent on water and typically dries out a month before native Oregon grasses. The high rainfall in 2017 allowed cheatgrass to spread abundantly throughout eastern Oregon. In areas that have cheatgrass, fire seasons have essentially been lengthened by a month due to the sooner availability of fuel. Due to its ability to both cause fires and repopulate burned areas cheatgrass is in a positive feedback loop of continual dispersal. Human-ignited fires Oregon’s population has been in a steady state of growth for the last three decades. With higher populations comes higher risk of human ignited forest fires. 2017 saw the devastating effects of human influenced fires. The Eagle Creek Fire burned 48,831 acres of land. This fire was ignited by a smoke bomb carelessly thrown by a 15-year-old boy. Something as simple as the exhaust pipe of a car or a cigarette out of a car window can start a devastating fire. Wildfires Table contains 2017 wildfires in Oregon that burned over 1,000 acres Others fires include: Ana Fire Blanket Creek Fire Indian Creek Fire Upper Mine Fire Horse Prairie Fire – Douglas County, Oregon Jade Creek Fire – Fremont–Winema National Forest Potato Hill Fire – Willamette National Forest Nash Fire – Willamette National Forest and Deschutes National Forest North Pelican Fire – Fremont-Winema National Forest Fires on ODF land The majority of the burned area within Oregon Department of Forestry (ODF) held land occurred within the SOA fire region which includes the districts: Southwest, Coos, Douglas, South Cascade, and Western Lane. The SOA fire region experienced 38,384.33 acres of burned land. The EOA fire region had the second highest amount of burned area and includes the fire districts of: Central Oregon, Northeast Oregon, Klamath- Lake, and Walker Range. This fire region experienced a total of 4,992.6 acres of burned land. The NOA saw the least amount of area burned but still had 151 individual fires ignited within the region. The NOA fire region includes the fire districts of: Tillamook, Astoria, Forest Grove, West Oregon, and North Cascade. The fires in this region accounted for a total of 2168.88 acres of burned land. In 2017 the Oregon Department of Forestry had 45,681.5 acres of land burned in their forests. References External links Wildfire tracker from The Oregonian

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wildfires%20in%202017

Wildfires in 2017

The 2017 wildfire season involved wildfires on multiple continents. On Greenland, which is mostly covered by ice and permafrost, multiple fires occurred in melted peat bogs, described as "unusual, and possibly unprecedented". Popular media asked whether the wildfires were related to global warming. Research published by NASA states "climate change has increased fire risk in many regions", but caused "greater severity in the colder latitudes" where boreal and temperate forests exist, and scholars have described "a warm weather fluctuation that has become more frequent in recent decades" related to wildfires, without naming any particular event as being directly caused by global warming. Below is a partial list of articles on wildfires from around the world in the year 2017. Africa 2017 Knysna fires, South Africa Asia 2017 Southeast Asian haze Europe Depopulation of rural areas of Europe was also described as contributing to fires in Portugal and France. The wildfires near the Calampiso seaside resort west of Palermo, forced the evacuation by boat of more than 700 tourists on July 12. More bushfires broke out across southern Italy and Sicily, as temperatures hit 40 °C in the week leading up to July 13. About 23 wildfires raged in southern Italy on Wednesday, including on the slopes of Mount Vesuvius near Naples. Two were north of Mount Etna, in the suburbs of Sicilian city of Catania on the 13th. Italy's environment minister said a man had been arrested on suspicion of arson and Gian Luca Galletti was quoted as saying in Italian media|: “If someone set fire to Vesuvius, I want to see them in jail for 15 years,” on July 13. 150 hectares of pine forest were destroyed in a blaze in Sicily a month earlier. Some 15 wildfires were reported in Albania on August 5 and others occurred elsewhere in the Balkans and a few other parts of Southern Europe. June 2017 Portugal wildfires October 2017 Iberian wildfires France's Mediterranean coast including Côte d'Azur, and Corsica North America 2017 was the most expensive firefighting year on record for the US Forest Service with over $2 billion spent. Record setting fires included the Lodgepole Complex Fire, the nation's largest that year; the La Tuna Fire, which was the largest in Los Angeles history; and the 2017 British Columbia wildfires, worst in the history of the province. The western U.S., as of October, witnessed about 50,000 wildfires, with more than 3.4 million hectares burned. In Canada, as of August, 7.4 million acres had burned, and British Columbia recorded its worst year for land burned since 1958. The 2017 California wildfires were the most destructive on record with over $9 billion in insurance claims from the October fires and expected over $20 billion more for December's fires. 2017 British Columbia wildfires, Canada 2017 California wildfires 2017 Chile wildfires 2017 Montana wildfires 2017 Oregon wildfires 2017 Washington wildfires Bearskin Fire, Idaho, United States Highline Fire, Idaho, United States Goodwin Fire, Arizona, United States Tank Hollow Fire, Utah, United States Oceania 2016–17 Australian bushfire season 2017 Port Hills fires, New Zealand References External links Historical U.S. fire data for 2016 2017 2017-related lists

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2017%20Montana%20wildfires

2017 Montana wildfires

The 2017 Montana wildfires were a series of wildfires that burned over the course of 2017. Overview The 2017 fire season in Montana was exacerbated by drought conditions and , there were 21 large, active fires that had consumed over . By September 20, after rain and snow had significantly slowed most fire growth, the overall burned acreage in Montana was estimated at . Two fires alone burned over each. The first was the Lodgepole Complex Fire in eastern Montana, which started on July 19 and burned over before it was declared 93% contained two weeks later. The second was the Rice Ridge Fire, which was identified as the nation's top wildfire priority, after it rapidly expanded from about to over on September 3, 2017. Approximately 48 fires were burning , though some were under . The fire season began a month earlier than usual and months of June through August were the hottest and driest on record for Montana. On July 29, Montana had 11.87 percent of its total land listed as in exceptional drought, the largest percentage in the nation. In mid September, the eastern portion of the Going-to-the-Sun Road in Glacier National Park was closed by ice and snow in the Rockies, while simultaneously the western portion was closed due to wildfires. Federal disaster assistance was requested by Governor Steve Bullock and FEMA granted funds for the Rice Ridge Fire near Seeley Lake, Montana, Alice Creek Fire near Lincoln, Montana, West Fork Fire near Libby, Montana, Highway 200 Complex in Sanders County, Montana and the Moose Peak Fire. Over $280 million had been spent on firefighting by early August. A number of areas were subjected to evacuation orders, including most of the town of Seeley Lake. By September 18, 2017, rain and snow had significantly slowed most fires, except for parts of far northwestern Montana, near Libby, where the West Fork Fire required some evacuation orders to remain in effect. List of fires Major fires of 2017 that consumed over include the following (): Over Lodgepole Complex Fire, public and private land 52 miles WNW of Jordan, Rice Ridge Fire, Lolo National Forest, near Seeley Lake, Montana, Over Meyers Fire, Beaverhead National Forest/Deerlodge National Forest, Lolo Peak Fire, Lolo National Forest, Over Sapphire Complex Fire, Lolo National Forest, Little Hogback Fire, Lolo National Forest, Alice Creek Fire, Helena National Forest – Lewis and Clark National Forest, Tongue River Complex Fire, Custer National Forest/Gallatin National Forest, Liberty Fire, Flathead Indian Reservation, Sunrise Fire, Lolo National Forest, Highway 200 Complex Fire, Lolo National Forest/Kootenai National Forest, near Plains and Thompson Falls, Montana Caribou Fire, near Eureka, Montana, Kootenai National Forest, East Fork Fire, state land in Bears Paw Mountains, south of Havre, Montana, Strawberry Fire, near Dupuyer, Montana, Flathead National Forest, Scalp Fire, Flathead National Forest, West Fork Fire, Kootenai National Forest, Over Park Creek Fire, Helena National Forest/Lewis and Clark National Forest, Sprague Fire, Glacier National Park, Moose Peak Fire, Kootenai National Forest, Gibralter Ridge Fire, Kootenai National Forest, July Fire, public and private land near Zortman, Whetstone Ridge Fire, Beaverhead National Forest/Deerlodge National Forest, Reef Fire, Bob Marshall Wilderness, Flathead National Forest, Crucifixion Creek Fire, near Heart Butte, Montana, in the Badger-Two Medicine area, Helena National Forest/Lewis and Clark National Forest, Over Goat Creek Fire, Lolo National Forest, Crying Fire, public and private land 50 miles north of Winnett, Blacktail Fire, Lewis and Clark National Forest, Green Ridge Complex Fire, Bitterroot National Forest, Weasel Fire, Kootenai National Forest, Monahan Fire, Lolo National Forest, Blue Ridge Complex Fire, public and private land 39 miles NW of Jordan, Buffalo Fire, public and private land 31 miles SW of Broadus, Adair Peak Fire, Glacier National Park, Conrow Fire, Beaverhead National Forest/Deerlodge National Forest, Yooper Fire, SW Rural Culbertson/Richland County area, private and public land, Further reading References External links 2017 Montana wildfires 2017 in Montana

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wildfires%20in%20the%20United%20States

Wildfires in the United States

Wildfires can happen in many places in the United States, especially during droughts, but are most common in the Western United States and Florida. They may be triggered naturally, most commonly by lightning, or by human activity like unextinguished smoking materials, faulty electrical equipment, overheating automobiles, or arson. Fire management policy favored aggressive wildfire suppression starting in the early 20th century. In the 21st century, higher temperature and droughts driven by global warming have become more of a concern, and there has been increased advocacy for controlled burns and other measures to prevent fuel from accumulating in wild areas that can create more intense, larger, and difficult to control fires. Firefighters are generally employed by governments, including municipal and county fire departments, regional mutual aid organizations, and state agencies like the California Department of Forestry and Fire Protection and the New Jersey Forest Fire Service. Wildfire response is coordinated at the federal level by the National Interagency Fire Center, with the participation of the U.S. National Weather Service, and various agencies of the Departments of the Interior, Agriculture, Homeland Security, and Commerce. Fire squadrons of the United States Army are also sometimes called to large fires. History of wildfire policy Since the turn of the 20th century, various federal and state agencies have been involved in wildland fire management in one form or another. In the early 20th century, for example, the federal government, through the U.S. Army and the U.S. Forest Service, solicited fire suppression as a primary goal of managing the nation's forests. At this time in history fire was viewed as a threat to timber, an economically important natural resource. As such, the decision was made to devote public funds to fire suppression and fire prevention efforts. For example, the Forest Fire Emergency Fund Act of 1908 permitted deficit spending in the case of emergency fire situations. As a result, the U.S. Forest Service was able to acquire a deficit of over $1 million in 1910 due to emergency fire suppression efforts. Following the same tone of timber resource protection, the U.S. Forest Service adopted the "10 AM Policy" in 1935. Through this policy, the agency advocated the control of all fires by 10 o'clock of the morning following the discovery of a wildfire. Fire prevention was also heavily advocated through public education campaigns such as Smokey Bear. Through these and similar public education campaigns the general public was, in a sense, trained to perceive all wildfire as a threat to civilized society and natural resources. The negative sentiment towards wildland fire prevailed and helped to shape wildland fire management objectives throughout most of the 20th century. Beginning in the 1970s public perception of wildland fire management began to shift. Despite strong funding for fire suppression in the first half of the 20th century, massive wildfires continued to be prevalent across the landscape of North America. Ecologists were beginning to recognize the presence and ecological importance of natural, lightning-ignited wildfires across the United States. It was learned that suppression of fire in certain ecosystems may in fact increase the likelihood that a wildfire will occur and may increase the intensity of those wildfires. With the emergence of fire ecology as a science also came an effort to apply fire to ecosystems in a controlled manner; however, suppression is still the main tactic when a fire is set by a human or if it threatens life or property. By the 1980s, in light of this new understanding, funding efforts began to support prescribed burning in order to prevent wildfire events. In 2001, the United States implemented a National Fire Plan, increasing the budget for the reduction of hazardous fuels from $108 million in 2000 to $401 million. In addition to using prescribed fire to reduce the chance of catastrophic wildfires, mechanical methods have recently been adopted as well. Mechanical methods include the use of chippers and other machinery to remove hazardous fuels and thereby reduce the risk of wildfire events. Today the United States Forest Service maintains that "fire, as a critical natural process, will be integrated into land and resource management plans and activities on a landscape scale, and across agency boundaries. Response to wildfire is based on ecological, social and legal consequences of fire. The circumstance under which a fire occurs, and the likely consequences and public safety and welfare, natural and cultural resources, and values to be protected dictate the appropriate management response to fire" (United States Department of Agriculture Guidance for Implementation of Federal Wildland Fire Management Policy, 13 February 2009). The five federal regulatory agencies managing forest fire response and planning for 676 million acres in the United States are the Bureau of Land Management, the Bureau of Indian Affairs, the National Park Service, the United States Forest Service and the United States Fish and Wildlife Service. Several hundred million U.S. acres of wildfire management are also conducted by state, county, and local fire management organizations. In 2014, legislators proposed The Wildfire Disaster Funding Act to provide $2.7 billion fund appropriated by congress for the USDA and Department of Interior to use in fire suppression. The bill is a reaction to United States Forest Service and Department of Interior costs of Western Wildfire suppression appending that amounted to $3.5 billion in 2013. Wildland-urban interface policy An aspect of wildfire policy that is gaining more attention is the wildland-urban interface (WUI). More and more people are living in "red zones," or areas that are at high risk of wildfires. FEMA and the NFPA develop specific policies to guide homeowners and builders in how to build and maintain structures at the WUI and how protect against property losses. For example, NFPA-1141 is a standard for fire protection infrastructure for land development in wildland, rural and suburban areas and NFPA-1144 is a standard for reducing structure ignition hazards from wildland fire. For a full list of these policies and guidelines, see . Compensation for losses in the WUI are typically negotiated on an incident-by-incident basis. This is generating discussion about the burden of responsibility for funding and fighting a fire in the WUI, in that, if a resident chooses to live in a known red zone, should he or she retain a higher level of responsibility for funding home protection against wildfires. One initiative aimed at helping U.S. WUI communities live more safely with fire is called fire-adapted communities. Economics of fire management policy Today, in the United States, it is not uncommon for suppression operations for a single wildfire to cost millions of dollars. Federal funding to manage wildfires comes from the Forest Service and the Department of the Interior. The combined annual appropriations from these two departments were around $1.6 billion from FY1994–FY2000. More recently, from FY2008–FY2017, the combined annual appropriations were about $4.0 billion. (During this period, the high was $5.2 billion in FY2008 and the low was $2.9 billion in FY2012.) Subsequent years were $3.6 billion (FY2013), $4.1 billion (FY2014), $3.6 billion (FY2015), and $5.0 billion (FY2016). Although fire suppression purports to benefit society, other options for fire management exist. While these options cannot completely replace fire suppression as a fire management tool, other options can play an important role in overall fire management and can therefore affect the costs of fire suppression. Short-term fire suppression can, in the long term, result in larger, more intense wildfire events. In economic terms, expenditures used for wildfire suppression in the early 20th century have contributed to increased suppression costs which are being realized today. Regional burden of wildfires in the United States Nationally, the burden of wildfires is disproportionally heavily distributed in the southern and western regions. The Geographic Area Coordinating Group (GACG) divides the United States and Alaska into 11 geographic areas for the purpose of emergency incident management. One particular area of focus is wildland fires. A national assessment of wildfire risk in the United States based on GACG identified regions (with the slight modification of combining Southern and Northern California, and the West and East Basin); indicate that California (50.22% risk) and the Southern Area (15.53% risk) are the geographic areas with the highest wildfire risk. The western areas of the nation are experiencing an expansion of human development into and beyond what is called the wildland-urban interface (WUI). When wildfires inevitably occur in these fire-prone areas, often communities are threatened due to their proximity to fire-prone forest. The south is one of the fastest growing regions with 88 million acres classified as WUI. The south consistently has the highest number of wildfires per year. More than 50,000 communities are estimated to be at high to very high risk of wildfire damage. These statistics are greatly attributable to the South's year-round fire season. Effects of Climate Change on Wildfires in the U.S. Climate Change within the United States has increased heat and decreased moisture, which also increases the amount of dry fuel available, creating increasing fire frequency and risk. The increased risk may bring these fires closer or into urban areas. Along with the increased risk, studies show there will also be longer fire seasons and recovery time. The longer fire seasons are due to the increased heat and length of summer and spring, which are the most common seasons for wildfires. These longer seasons also start earlier due to the loss of snowpack during the winter causing less moisture in summer soil making it better fuel for wildfires. Western U.S. wildfire trends Save for areas near the Pacific coast, North America tends to be wetter in the East and drier in the West. The Western United States is a region of widespread, high-intensity wildfires. Aggressive suppression in the 20th century reduced wildfire size and intensity, but the resulting buildup of fuels has led to a resurgence in the last couple decades. Between 1970 and 2015, three times more "large fires" (fires that burn 1,000 acres or more) occurred in the Western U.S., with six times more acreage burnt, more than 1.7 million acres annually. Between 1970 and 2003, the region experienced wildfire seasons that were 78 days longer. It has been found that throughout the United States, 84% of wildfires are started by humans. A study conducted in 2019 found that from 1972 to 2018, California saw a fivefold increase in the area burned in any given year, and an eightfold increase in the area burned by summer fires. Another study estimated that the area burned between 1984 and 2015 could have been half of what it was without human-caused climate change. Finally, a 2020 research paper suggests that the number of autumn days with “extreme fire weather” has doubled over the past two decades. The climate model analyses suggest that continued climate change will further amplify the number of days with extreme fire weather by the end of this century. In 2020, a series of particularly large wildfires burned across California, Oregon, and Washington. They were described as unprecedented, fueled by climate change and decades of bad environmental policies. United States agencies stationed at the National Interagency Fire Center in Idaho maintain a "National Large Incident Year-to-Date Report" on wildfires, delineating 10 sub-national areas, aggregating the regional and national totals of burn size, fire suppression cost, and razed structure count, among other data. In 2020, as of October 21, "Coordination Centers" of each geography report the following: Note: Check primary sources for up-to-date statistics. Notable wildfires List of Arizona wildfires List of California wildfires List of Washington wildfires Peshtigo Fire, 1871; most loss of life in a US wildfire. Great Fire of 1910 in the US; shaped 20th-century wildfire policy 1988 Yellowstone wildfires 2011 Texas wildfires 2012 Oklahoma wildfires 2013 Beaver Creek Fire in Idaho. 2013 Yarnell Hill Fire 2016 Nevada wildfire October 2017 Northern California wildfires 2018 Camp Fire 2018 Woolsey Fire 2020 Western United States wildfires December 2021 Kansas wildfires 2023 Hawaii wildfires See also National Interagency Fire Center National Wildfire Coordinating Group References External links Current map of fine particulates, including smoke, and hotspots (fires, flare stacks, among others).

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BC%20Wildfire%20Service

BC Wildfire Service

BC Wildfire Service (BCWS) is the wildfire suppression service of the Canadian province of British Columbia. It is an element of the Ministry of Forests, Lands, Natural Resource Operations and Rural Development. Operations For suppression purposes, the BCWS divides the province of British Columbia into six regional fire centres, each of which is responsible for managing wildfire response within its boundaries. These fire centres are in turn divided into local fire zones. Provincial level activities are managed by the Provincial Wildfire Coordinating Centre in Kamloops and the BCWS Headquarters in Victoria. Crews The BC Wildfire Service employs four types of wildfire suppression crews throughout the province. All BCWS firefighters are classified as Type 1 firefighters. Initial Attack (IA) Crews Three-person crews which are usually the first to arrive to a newly reported wildfire. IA Crews respond to the majority of fires in British Columbia. Rapattack Crews Rappel-capable crews which respond to fires in inaccessible terrain. Rapattack firefighters rappel from a helicopter in close proximity to a fire. They may also construct helipads so that larger amounts of equipment and personnel may be brought to the fire. Parattack Crews Also known as smokejumpers, these firefighters parachute from fixed-wing aircraft, which allows the rapid deployment of several firefighters over great distances. Parattack crews are most utilized in the northeastern part of British Columbia. Unit Crews 20 person crews specializing in larger fires that have grown beyond initial attack capabilities. Unit crews oftentimes live in temporary fire camps and work for up to fourteen days at a time. Once a fire is deemed contained, Type 2 firefighters, also known as contract crews, may be used to "mop-up" and patrol a fire to extinguish any remaining fire activity. All Type 2 firefighters in British Columbia are private contractors retained by the provincial government. Aviation The agency pioneered the use of Automated Flight Following for fire helicopters in the 1980s. BC contracts out aerial firefighting to Conair Group of Abbotsford, British Columbia and Air Spray of Red Deer, Alberta, rather than maintaining its own flight staff and equipment. References External links Wildfire Service Wildfire suppression agencies

55496400

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/October%202017%20Northern%20California%20wildfires

October 2017 Northern California wildfires

The October 2017 Northern California wildfires, also known as the Northern California firestorm, North Bay Fires, and the Wine Country Fires were a series of 250 wildfires that started burning across the state of California, United States, beginning in early October. Twenty-one became major fires that burned at least . The wildfires broke out throughout Napa, Lake, Sonoma, Mendocino, Butte, and Solano Counties during severe fire weather conditions, effectively leading to a major red flag warning for much of the Northern California area. Pacific Gas and Electric reported that red flag conditions existed in 44 of the 49 counties in its service area. Seventeen separate wildfires were reported at that time. These fires included the Tubbs Fire (which grew to become the most destructive wildfire in the history of California up until that time - fires in 2018 were more destructive), the Atlas Fire, Nuns Fire, and others. These wildfires were also the most destructive ones of the 2017 California wildfire season. The October 2017 fires were the costliest group of wildfires on record at the time, causing around $14.5 billion (2017 USD) in damages, including $11 billion in insured losses and $1.5 billion in fire suppression costs, surpassing the 1991 Oakland firestorm, which until then had been the single costliest fire on record. In addition, the Northern California fires were predicted to cost the US economy at least $85 billion. In 2018, the Camp Fire surpassed the October 2017 fires to become the single-costliest fire on record, causing an estimated $16.5 billion (2018 USD) in property damage. Owing to the extreme conditions, shortly after the fires ignited on October 8 and 9, they rapidly grew to become extensive, full-scale incidents spanning from to well over , each within a single day. By October 14, the fires had burned more than while forcing 90,000 people to evacuate from their homes. In total, the Northern California fires killed 44 people and hospitalized at least 192 others, making this one of the deadliest wildfire events in the United States during the past century. Weather Days prior to the wildfires, the National Weather Service had begun issuing red-flag warnings throughout much of northern California as conditions were expected to become extremely volatile, with winds expected to be gusting between from the north to the south. By the evening of October 8, the Diablo winds were reported gusting up to within the affected areas as over a dozen wildfires began to break out. Impact and reaction Many of those killed in the fires are believed to have died late on October 8 or early on October 9, 2017, when most of the fires broke out overnight. Most of the victims were elderly, though the ages of the victims ranged from 14 to 100 years old. On October 9, California governor Jerry Brown declared a state of emergency for the counties of Napa, Sonoma, Yuba, Butte, Lake, Mendocino, Nevada, and Orange, and sent a letter to the White House requesting a major disaster declaration. President Donald Trump approved the disaster declaration on October 10. That evening, Governor Brown issued an emergency declaration for Solano County. Surveying the region, representative Mike Thompson of California's 5th congressional district said, "I fully expect this will be the worst fire disaster in California history." More than 10,000 firefighters battled the blaze, using more than 1,000 fire engines and other equipment, with crews arriving from as far away as Canada and Australia. Pacific Gas and Electric Company (PG&E) reported mobilizing 4,300 workers to restore power. It also said that more than 350,000 customers had lost electric service and 42,000 customers gas service since the wildfires began on October 8. By October 14, PG&E had restored electricity to 92% and gas service to 16,800 of the customers affected. Reinsurance broker Aon Benfield stated that these are the costliest wildfires in U.S. history, with an estimated eight billion U.S. dollars in insured losses. The largest portion of these losses was to residential property. Additional losses were to automobiles, commercial property including business interruption insurance, and to crops. Many of the losses were in urban areas not historically prone to wildfire exposure. Air pollution By October 12, the air quality in the city of Napa was ranked the poorest in the nation, due to high levels of particulates and ozone. By October 13, air quality in the city reached the "hazardous" level, the most dangerous on the Environmental Protection Agency scale. In Solano County, over 250 people were sickened by smoke inhalation, and sought care at hospitals. Twenty-three were admitted to emergency rooms. By October 12, smoke from the wildfires had spread nearly 100 miles, with "unhealthy" air quality indices registered in the cities of Oakland, San Francisco, and San Rafael. Due to the poor air quality, San Francisco State University canceled classes, and outdoor activities were canceled in a number of cities, including Danville, Palo Alto, and Walnut Creek. Visibility issues spurred the Federal Aviation Administration to implement a ground delay program at San Francisco International Airport, and nearly 280 flights were canceled over a three-day period. Over a week after the fires started, flights continued to be canceled and delayed due to poor visibility from the smoke. Fires Cherokee Fire The Cherokee Fire broke out on the evening of Sunday, October 8, near Oroville in Butte County just after 9 PM PDT. Reportedly igniting near Cherokee Road, the fire quickly expanded from hundreds to thousands of acres within a few hours of burning as it threatened nearby Oroville and surrounding rural neighborhoods. Atlas Fire The Atlas Fire burned Napa County, north of the city of Napa, near Napa Soda Springs. On October 29, the fire had burned and was 100% contained. Tubbs Fire The Tubbs Fire started near Tubbs Lane in Calistoga on the evening of October 8, 2017, and burned at least . In the Fountain Grove area numerous homes, the Fountaingrove Inn, the historic Round Barn, and a Hilton resort were destroyed. By October 14, the death toll from this fire alone had risen to 20. By October 20, the Tubbs Fire had become the most destructive wildfire in the history of California. This was later surpassed by the Camp Fire (2018). A filing by PG&E to the judge overseeing PG&E's probation for the 2010 San Bruno fire said that the Tubbs Fire may have started with privately owned equipment on private property for which PG&E was not responsible. Nuns Fire The Nuns Fire, centered in the areas to the east and north of the city of Sonoma, merged with the Norrbom fire on October 11. The Adobe fire merged with Nuns/Norrbom on October 12. The Partrick fire joined the four-fire conflagration on October 13. By October 16, the combined fire, which now also included the Pressley fire, covered over . On October 18, the Oakmont Fire merged into the Nuns Fire, and the combined fire grew to over in size. Investigation Based on the investigation by CalFire, it has been found that Pacific Gas & Electric equipment was the cause of all of the individual fires except for the Tubbs Fire. In January 2019 CalFire determined the Tubbs Fire was caused by incorrectly maintained electrical equipment owned by a private landowner. However, in August 2019 a fast-track jury trial was scheduled to revisit whether or not PG&E was the cause of the Tubbs Fire. News media noted reports of wind-damaged power equipment around the time the fires were starting. Pacific Gas & Electric stated that strong winds had affected the utility's power lines in the North Bay area on late October 8 and early October 9. A California Department of Forestry and Fire Protection (CAL FIRE) spokesperson stated that investigators were considering this among other possible causes. The California Public Utilities Commission sent PG&E a notification to preserve equipment, emails, and documents relevant to the utility's tree-trimming program. CAL FIRE Director Ken Pimlott discouraged premature speculation of causes, stating that, "The facts will come out when the investigations are done." Wildfire victim claims On July 1, 2020, the PG&E Fire Victim Trust (FVT) was established as part of the reorganization plan of the 2019 bankruptcy of PG&E to administer the claims of the wildfire victims. Also on July 1, PG&E funded the Fire Victim Trust (FVT) with $5.4 billion in cash and 22.19% of stock in the reorganized PG&E, which covers most of the obligations of its settlement for the wildfire victims. PG&E has two more payments totaling $1.35 billion in cash, scheduled to be paid in January 2021 and January 2022, to complete its obligations to the wildfire victims. Claimants are wildfire victims from the 2017 North Bay Fires, 2015 Butte Fire, and 2018 Camp Fire in Northern California. The 2017 Tubbs Fire is considered to be one of the 2017 North Bay Fires. The court case for the Tubbs Fire was superseded by the PG&E Restructuring Support Agreement (RSA) of December 9, 2019 and by the PG&E bankruptcy reorganization plan, wherein PG&E accepted liability for the Tubbs Fire. See also 2017 California wildfires December 2017 Southern California wildfires October 2007 California wildfires Oakland firestorm of 1991 Recloser Witch Fire San Diego Gas and Electric Pacific Gas and Electric References External links Interactive map of fires (San Francisco Chronicle) October 2017 events in the United States

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/October%202017%20Iberian%20wildfires

October 2017 Iberian wildfires

The October 2017 Iberian wildfires were a series of more than 7,900 forest fires affecting Northern Portugal and Northwestern Spain between 13 and 18 October. The wildfires claimed the lives of at least 49 individuals, including 45 in Portugal and four in Spain, and dozens more were injured. The first fires started on or before 13 October in Galicia. The Prime Minister of Spain Mariano Rajoy and Jorge Gomes, Portugal's secretary of state of internal administration, believed most of the fires were lit by arsonists. By 15 October 2017 winds increased, due in part to Hurricane Ophelia passing between the Azores and the peninsula, which helped fan wildfires in both Portugal and Spain. In Portugal, on its worst day, firefighters battled over 440 fires. The country sought assistance from European neighbours and Morocco. The Portuguese Minister of Internal Administration Constança Urbano de Sousa, who resigned as a consequence, said "We have all our firefighters out there doing everything they can". Four months earlier, the June 2017 Portugal wildfires had caused 66 deaths in Portugal, for a total of 115 deaths (111 in Portugal, 4 in Spain) between the two incidents. Meteorological aftermath in Europe The arrival of Ophelia brought Saharan dust to parts of the United Kingdom, giving the sky an orange or yellow-sepia appearance, and the sun a red or orange appearance. A strange 'burning' smell was also reported across Devon, also attributed to the dust, and smoke from forest fires in Portugal and Spain. Winds up to were observed in Orlock Head, County Down, at the height of the storm. Approximately 50,000 households lost power in Northern Ireland. Insurance claims from Northern Ireland, Wales, and Scotland are estimated to reach £5–10 million (US$6.6–13.2 million). In Tallinn, Estonia, a black rain occurred due to the fact that Ophelia brought smoke and soot of fires to Estonia from Portugal, as well as dust from the Sahara Desert, Report informs citing the Estonian media. "We looked at photos from satellites and the Finnish weather service confirmed that the smoke and soot of the fires in Portugal and partly the dust from the Sahara reached us," meteorologist Taimi Paljak said. See also June 2017 Portugal wildfires Hurricane Ophelia (2017) 2017 wildfire season References 2017 in Portugal 2017 wildfires Air pollution in Spain Arson in Portugal Arson in Spain October 2017 events in Europe October 2017 events in Spain Fires in Portugal Natural disasters in Portugal Wildfires in Europe Wildfires in Spain History of the Iberian Peninsula 2017 crimes in Portugal 2017 disasters in Spain 2017 fires in Europe

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2017%20Portugal%20wildfires

2017 Portugal wildfires

2017 Portugal wildfires may refer to: June 2017 Portugal wildfires October 2017 Iberian wildfires

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/December%202017%20Southern%20California%20wildfires

December 2017 Southern California wildfires

A series of 29 wildfires ignited across Southern California in December 2017. Six of the fires became significant wildfires, and led to widespread evacuations and property losses. The wildfires burned over , and caused traffic disruptions, school closures, hazardous air conditions, and power outages; over 230,000 people were forced to evacuate. The largest of the wildfires was the Thomas Fire, which grew to , and became the largest wildfire in modern California history, until it was surpassed by the Ranch Fire in the Mendocino Complex, in the following year. On December 5, Governor Jerry Brown declared a state of emergency for Ventura and Los Angeles Counties, followed by San Diego County on December 7; U.S. President Donald Trump subsequently declared a State of Emergency for California on December 8. This swarm of wildfires was exacerbated by unusually powerful and long-lasting Santa Ana winds, as well as large amounts of dry vegetation, due to a then-far unusually dry rainy season thus far. They also occurred at the end of an unusually active and destructive wildfire season; the fires cost at least $3.5 billion (2018 USD) in damages, including $2.2 billion in insured losses and $300 million in fire suppression costs. Wildfire maps These maps depict the location and burn areas of some of the major wildfires. Wildfires Thomas Fire The first report of the fire was at 6:26 p.m. on December 4 just north of Santa Paula, near Steckel Park and Thomas Aquinas College. Fanned by Santa Ana winds, over the next few hours it rushed across rural backcountry into the city of Ventura, burning close to 500 homes and consuming . Over the next days, it advanced toward Ojai and had jumped Highway 33 and the Ventura River into the Rincon Oil Field area. By December 8, the Thomas Fire had grown to with only 10% containment, and fire officials estimated that the fire had cost at least $17 million to fight. By the evening of December 10, the Thomas Fire had reached in size, becoming the fifth largest wildfire in modern California history, and the largest wildfire recorded in California during the month of December. There were multiple periods of time when the fire was advancing at a rate of over an acre a second. The Thomas Fire had also destroyed at least 794 structures while damaging 187 others, and cost at least $38.4 million to fight, becoming at least the 10th most destructive wildfire in California history. Early on December 11, the Thomas Fire had grown to , while containment of the fire had increased to 15%. On December 13, the Thomas Fire's northwestern flank linked up with its southwestern flank, to the east of Carpinteria, enveloping an area containing Ojai and Lake Casitas. Early on December 16, the Thomas Fire reached a size of , with 40% containment, surpassing the Rim Fire as California's third-largest wildfire. On December 19, the Thomas Fire reached , with 55% containment, surpassing the burn area of the Rush Fire in California to become the second-largest wildfire in modern California history. During the evening of December 22, the Thomas Fire expanded further to , with containment at 65%, surpassing the Cedar Fire of 2003 to become California's largest wildfire in modern history. On December 24, the Thomas Fire grew to , after the fires from a back-burning operation completely merged into the Thomas Fire's northwestern flank, though containment of the wildfire also increased to 86%. On January 8–9, 2018, a winter storm struck California, bringing heavy rain to Southern California, and prompting mandatory evacuations in parts of Los Angeles, Santa Barbara, and Ventura Counties, over potential mudslides in areas affected by wildfires. At least of rain fell over the two-day period, causing several major mudflows. On January 12, 2018, the U.S. Forest Service declared the Thomas Fire 100 percent contained, at 281,893 acres. Afterward, Los Pedros National Forest officials continued monitoring the burn area of the Thomas Fire for hotspots. On March 22, 2018, InciWeb declared the Thomas Fire to be inactive and ceased providing updates. On June 1, 2018, the Thomas Fire was officially declared to be out, after more than two months in which no hotspots were detected within the perimeter of the burn area. Creek Fire Rye Fire Little Mountain Fire On December 5, at 12:28 p.m. PST, a wildfire broke out near University Parkway and Varsity Avenue in San Bernardino, just off Interstate 215. The wildfire quickly grew to , causing the closure of Interstate 215, and triggering evacuation orders for residents in the area. Students at Shandin Hills Middle School, on Little Mountain Drive, were also evacuated to Holcomb Elementary School. At 6:30 p.m. PST on the same day, the road closure and the evacuation orders had been lifted, though the Little Mountain area still remained closed off. On December 6, the Little Mountain Fire grew to , while firefighters worked to contain the flames. Firefighters made progress on the fire that day, due to the weakening of the Santa Ana winds in the area beginning on the evening of December 5. During the evening of December 7, firefighters managed to extinguish the Little Mountain Fire, with no increase in acreage. Three civilians were burned by the fire, and were sent to a hospital for treatment. Three garages suffered minor damage, but no other structures were damaged by the fire. An investigation revealed that the fire was caused by an illegal cooking fire at a homeless camp. Skirball Fire Lilac Fire Liberty Fire The Liberty Fire was reported on December 7, at 1:14 p.m. PST, in Murrieta, in Riverside County. The Liberty Fire began as a vegetation fire. By the evening the Liberty Fire had grown to , with 10% containment. On the next day, with the improved weather conditions, firefighters made much more progress on the fire, bringing it to 90% containment. Late on December 9, the Liberty Fire was fully contained. Six structures and an outbuilding were destroyed by the fire. Other wildfires On December 7, a small brush fire broke out at Huntington Beach. The small brush fire burned before it was fully contained on the same day, damaging a daycare center and a bank. On December 7, 2 small brush fires broke out north of Buellton, in Santa Barbara County. The brush fires were collectively dubbed as the "Woodchopper Incident", with the first fire burning and the second fire burning , before they were both contained later on the same day. The brush fires briefly caused the closure of Highway 101. On December 8, at 9:30 a.m. PST, the Sweetwater Fire broke out in eastern San Diego County, south of Interstate 8 and just west of Japatul Valley Road, in Descanso. The wildfire burned about of land, before it was fully brought under control about 4 hours later. On December 8, sometime before 12:56 p.m. PST, a small brush fire broke out in the El Sereno neighborhood of Los Angeles. Firefighters quickly extinguished the fire in a little over an hour, after the fire had burned . On December 8, around 2:15 p.m. PST, a small brush fire broke out in Otay Mesa Canyon, in southern San Diego County. Firefighters were able to quickly extinguish the flames. Early on December 11, firefighters quickly put out two small fires in Ocean Beach, San Diego. At around 2:15 a.m. PST, firefighters put out a burning fence in the 4,400 block of Santa Cruz Avenue, before responding to another shed fire less than a mile away, on Muir Avenue at 2:30 a.m., which damaged an RV. Arson investigators believe that the two fires are connected. On December 11, two wildfires ignited along Interstate 805 in southern San Diego. The first fire ignited near Route 54 and Interstate 805, which was quickly extinguished. The second fire ignited at 2:07 p.m. PST at Interstate 805, to the south of Mesa College. This fire triggered the closing of the right two northbound lanes of Interstate 805 (on the side of the fire), and the fire burned 0.5 acre (0.20 ha) before firefighters were able to stop its spread. On December 13, a small brush fire broke out in Oxnard, near Highway 101, just after 7:50 AM PST. The fire reached a quarter acre in size, before it was quickly contained within an hour. During the night of December 15, just before 10:10 p.m. PST, a small brush fire broke out near Otay Valley Road, near a trucking facility in Otay Mesa, in southern San Diego County. The fire burned about 20 vehicles, before it was brought under control. On December 19, at 8:20 a.m. PST, a small fire broke out at San Diego International Airport, near the 4000 block of Pacific Highway. The fire burned through a storage area and a couple of businesses, before firefighters were able to get the fire under control several hours later. The fire is estimated to have caused at least $1 million in damage. Impacts The December 2017 wildfires burned large areas of land and resulted in large property losses. In addition, the wildfires forced over 230,000 residents to evacuate their homes. California Governor Jerry Brown declared a state of emergency in Ventura and Los Angeles Counties on December 5, and San Diego County on December 7. Los Angeles mayor Eric Garcetti declared a state of emergency for the city on December 6. U.S. President Donald Trump declared a state of emergency for the state of California on December 8. Deaths One civilian death was recorded, a 70-year-old woman, Virginia Pesola, from Santa Paula. In addition, Cory Iverson, a firefighter, perished while fighting the Thomas Fire. "This is a tragic reminder of the dangerous work that our firefighters do every day," said Los Padres National Forest Supervisor Teresa Benson in a release. "The Thomas Fire has many unprecedented conditions and complexities that challenge the already demanding job of fire suppression." Aftermath Mudslides The wildfires destroyed many acres of forest. Due to the lack of trees' roots holding the soil together, the ground had reduced stability and was vulnerable to mud slides in heavy rain. In early January 2018, heavy rain was predicted for the American Southwest, causing flash flood watches and evacuations to be issued for portions of California affected by wildfires. See also 2017 California wildfires October 2017 Northern California wildfires Blue Cut Fire (2016) May 2014 San Diego County wildfires October 2007 California wildfires Cedar Fire (2003) Santiago Canyon Fire 2018 Southern California mudflows References External links 2017 Statewide Fire Map, Google SDSC WiFire Interactive Map — San Diego Supercomputer Center 2017 California fires information  — CalFire Southern California's Worst Brush Fires Wildfires in Los Angeles County, California December 2017 events in the United States Wildfires in San Bernardino County, California Wildfires in San Diego County, California Wildfires in Ventura County, California Wildfires in Riverside County, California

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2002%20California%20wildfires

2002 California wildfires

The 2002 California wildfires were a series of wildfires that were active in the state of California during the year 2002. In total, there were 8,328 fires that burned of land. Fires Below is a list of fires that exceeded or caused a notable amount of damage during the 2002 fire season. The list is taken from CAL FIRE's list of large fires. References Wildfires 2002 California, 2002 2002

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Return%20of%20Wildfire

The Return of Wildfire

The Return of Wildfire, also known as Black Stallion, is a 1948 American Western film directed by Ray Taylor (director) and starring Richard Arlen. Plot Pop Marlowe owns a horse ranch and his daughters help maintain it. Judy Marlow runs the ranch, and sister Pat helps with the chores. When Pat is injured while trying to capture the wild horse Wildfire, drifter Dobe Williams helps her get back home. Pat asks Pop to give Dobe a job, and in return he agrees to help Pat catch Wildfire. Frank Keller, the ranch foreman, has fallen on hard times after losing $6,000 at the local saloon owned by Marty Quinn. Knowing that Keller is courting Judy, and that the ranch has plenty of horses, Quinn tells Keller to buy about 500 head of the Marlowe's breeding stock to repay the debt. The problem is that Pop knows Quinn, and is aware that he only wants the horses so that he can monopolize the market and drive prices up. Quinn reminds Keller that should anything happen to Pop, that his girlfriend Judy will inherit the ranch. As Pat and Dobe become closer, Wildfire frees all the ranch's herd, and the ranch hands must round up all the horses. During the round-up Keller beats Pop, trusting that the herd of rushing horses will kill him. In the aftermath Judy flirts with Dobe, Keller and Pat get jealous, and Judy agrees to sell the herd to Quinn. Dobe leaves town, but after Judy and Pat reconcile they head out after him to apologize. When Dobe asks the saloon owner to sell the horses back, Quinn gets angry and pistol whips him. Judy still wants to break Dobe and Pat up, but the pair work on catching and taming the wild herd of horses that Wildfire leads, and soon the ranch has 300 horses broken in. Quinn doesn't want those horses sold, and blackmails Keller with his knowledge of Pop Marlowe's murder. Keller gets all the ranch hands drunk to slow down the ranch's work at taming the wild horses. Dobe finds out that Quinn is trying to hire the ranch hands out from under the Marlows, forces the hands back to the ranch with his six-shooter, and sobers them up. Quinn and his gang storm the ranch and Pat is injured in the raid. Quinn orders Keller to trap Wildfire so he won't lead the other horses out into the wild. When horse and man come face to face, Wildfire stomps Keller to death. Dobe then goes after Wildfire thinking he's herded the horses out into the wild, but Judy rushes to tell Dobe that Pat is recovering nicely, and that Quinn is actually the one who is responsible. Quinn eventually shoots and wounds Wildfire while Dobe is driving the herd back to the ranch. Dobe then goes after the bad guys and defeats them in a drawn out fight. As Wildfire recovers Judy stops interfering with Dobe and Pat. Wildfire is then released back to the wide open as Dobe and Pat more forward with their relationship. Cast Richard Arlen as Dobe Williams Patricia Morison as Pat Marlowe Mary Beth Hughes as Judy Marlowe James Millican as Frank Keller Reed Hadley as Marty Quinn Chris-Pin Martin as Pancho Stanley Andrews as Pop Marlowe Mike Ragan as Dirk - Henchman (as Holly Bane) Highland Dale as Wildfire - the Horse References External links Black Stallion at TCMDB Black Stallion at BFI 1948 films American Western (genre) films Films directed by Ray Taylor Films scored by Albert Glasser 1948 Western (genre) films Lippert Pictures films American black-and-white films 1940s English-language films 1940s American films English-language Western (genre) films

57450325

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2018%20Washington%20wildfires

2018 Washington wildfires

The 2018 Washington wildfire season officially began June 1, 2018. A statewide state of emergency was declared by Governor Jay Inslee on July 31. Training and preparedness State level planning for the fire season began at least as early as January, 2018. A regional annual meeting was held at Yakima in March to prepare for fighting wildfires. Summer fire rules went into effect on state-owned lands on April 15. Four hundred firefighters from 36 fire districts and 18 agencies trained to fight forest fires in the Cascade Mountains above Yakima in May. A 20-year Washington Wildland Fire Protection Strategic Plan under development during the first half of the year was to be released by the Department of Natural Resources to the public in July, 2018. In June, three firefighting helicopters were staged in Western Washington by the Department of Natural Resources for the first time, prompted by a low 2017 fire season west of the Cascades followed by a dry month of May 2018 causing an abundance of dry fuel, and other weather considerations. Season prediction The season predictions issued in May cited drier than average weather conditions and low snow pack in Oregon, but in Washington conditions appeared to be near normal. The water year began October 1, 2017, and by May 1, indicated normal precipitation in the state, but according to National Interagency Fire Center, models that also include Pacific-scale El Niño–Southern Oscillation effects showed high chance of below-normal precipitation and higher-than-normal temperatures through July; these factors led to a prediction of above-normal wildfire risk for the entirety of Eastern Washington through August 2018. Climate scientists said in July that the Palmer Drought Severity Index showed Western Washington to be significantly drier than normal, adding to fire risk there. Fires and smoke What may have been the first significant fire of the year occurred on April 24, when 20 acres burned at Woodland, Washington in Clark County, extinguished via aerial attack. On May 22, a controlled burn initiated by a local resident went wild and burned 300 acres near the Yakima Training Center. An Army helicopter crew was credited with saving homes near Selah by dumping water. The Soap Lake Fire in early June grew to and triggered level 3 evacuations in Grant County. The Ryegrass Coulee Fire on July 9–10 burned 1,600 acres, closed 20 miles of Interstate 90 in both directions for most of a day, and forced the complete evacuation of Vantage, Washington. It was the first of the state's fire season to trigger a level three evacuation or a road closure. The Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) released funds, saying that "the fire threatened such destruction as would constitute a major disaster". The Little Camas Fire at , in the Cascades south of Leavenworth, Washington, started on July 5 and reached over 300 acres. It caused the evacuation of a bible camp. Over 440 firefighters and three helicopters were sent to contain it. The Vulcan Mountain Fire at Vulcan Mountain in Ferry County grew to over 20 acres around July 13, before being contained. Smoke conditions in mid July were judged as good, in contrast to the 2017 season which had Seattle blanketed in smoke and ash around the same time due to fires in British Columbia, Eastern Washington and Oregon. The Rocky Reach Fire at , near Wenatchee, started on Friday, July 13 and reached over before being contained. The Boylston Fire started on July 19 again shut down I-90 east of Ellensburg for 24 hours. It burned 80,000 acres, mostly on the Yakima Training Center, caused level three "leave now" evacuations, and destroyed five buildings while being fought by three fixed-wing aircraft and two helicopters. Military personnel and equipment to fight the fire were sent from Fairchild Air Force Base in Spokane and Joint Base Lewis-McChord in the Puget Sound Area. The smoke caused "unhealthy" air conditions in Spokane on July 20. The Upriver Beacon Fire in Spokane County, on the Spokane city/county border at , caused the evacuation of 800 homes and evacuation warnings for thousands more on July 18. It burned before being contained. Nearly all local fire agencies including cities of Spokane, Spokane Valley and Spokane County, and out-of-area fire aircraft, responded. The at near Entiat started on July 28 as the result of lightning. Forest recreation users were told to leave. Smoke from fires in Siberia was visible over southern British Columbia in late July and was assessed to be a possible health impact to Washington residents. On July 29, the Puget Sound Clean Air Agency stated the Puget Sound region would experience "moderate air quality at times with some upper level smoke making for pretty sunsets. This smoke comes from distant fires, mostly originating from Siberia." On July 30, University of Washington meteorology professor Cliff Mass noted the progressively more smoky situation in Seattle from Siberian wildfires, and said a "smoke front" from California's Carr Fire would arrive before sunset. Parts of Goat Rocks Wilderness were closed for the month of September in response to the Miriam Fire at , reported July 30 as the result of lightning. 400 campers were evacuated. The Milepost 90 Fire in the Columbia Gorge near Wishram, Washington started on July 31 and reached over by August 1. Level 2 and level 3 evacuation orders were issued near Wishram. Almost 20 miles of State Route 14 were closed in both directions. On August 3, it burned and 85% contained. Crescent Mountain and Gilbert Fires at near Twisp began with lightning on July 29 and grew quickly to over by August 1, driven by evening downslope wind. Four helicopters and other equipment were assigned and smokejumpers sent in to the rough terrain. Hikers and campers were told to leave. Crescent Mountain Fire increased to by August 5. It was controlled as of October 22, 2018 and burned a total 52,000 acres. The Maple Fire at near the Hamma Hamma River on the Olympic Peninsula sent smoke towards Seattle on August 7. The fire was caused by illegal logging, and burned . The resulting criminal trial was the first time tree DNA had been used in a federal trial in the United States. Resources An infrared thermography-capable RC-26 surveillance aircraft and support crew from Washington Air National Guard were deployed in support of the National Interagency Fire Center for the third year in a row. The Governor's July 31 state of emergency declaration allowed the Washington National Guard to be deployed; two Blackhawk helicopters at Fairchild Air Force Base were quickly allocated to firefighting. References External links Northwest Interagency Coordination Center (NWCC) for Oregon and Washington Wildfire resources, Washington Department of Natural Resources Washington smoke blog, seasonal updates began July 13, 2018 (Washington Ecology with county, state, and Federal agencies and Indian tribes) Wildfires 2018