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586-4 | ASCII
Section::::Design considerations.
section:design :designconsider | 586 | ASCII | Computer-related introductions in 1963,Latin-script representations,ASCII,Character sets |
586-5 | ASCII
Section::::Design considerations.:Bit width.
The X3.2 subcommittee designed ASCII based on the earlier teleprinter encoding systems. Like other character encodings, ASCII specifies a correspondence between digital bit patterns and character symbols (i.e. graphemes and control characters). This allows digital devices to communicate with each other and to process, store, and communicate character-oriented information such as written language. Before ASCII was developed, the encodings in use included 26 alphabetic characters, 10 numerical digits, and from 11 to 25 special graphic symbols. To include all these, and control characters compatible with the Comité Consultatif International Téléphonique et Télégraphique (CCITT) International Telegraph Alphabet No. 2 (ITA2) standard of 1924, FIELDATA (1956), and early EBCDIC (1963), more than 64 codes were required for ASCII.
ITA2 were in turn based on the 5-bit telegraph code Émile Baudot invented in 1870 and patented in 1874.
The committee debated the possibility of a shift function (like in ITA2), which would allow more than 64 codes to be represented by a six-bit code. In a shifted code, some character codes determine choices between options for the following character codes. It allows compact encoding, but is less reliable for data transmission, as an error in transmitting the shift code typically makes a long part of the transmission unreadable. The standards committee decided against shifting, and so ASCII required at least a seven-bit code.
The committee considered an eight-bit code, since eight bits (octets) would allow two four-bit patterns to efficiently encode two digits with binary-coded decimal. However, it would require all data transmission to send eight bits when seven could suffice. The committee voted to use a seven-bit code to minimize costs associated with data transmission. Since perforated tape at the time could record eight bits in one position, it also allowed for a parity bit for error checking if desired. Eight-bit machines (with octets as the native data type) that did not use parity checking typically set the eighth bit to 0. In some printers, the high bit was used to enable Italics printing.
section:design :designconsider considerbit bitwidth widthx3.2 x3.2subcommitte subcommittedesign designascii asciibase baseearlier earlierteleprint teleprintencod encodsystem systemlike likecharact charactencod encodascii asciispecifi specificorrespond corresponddigit digitbit bitpattern patterncharact charactsymbol symboli.e i.egraphem graphemcontrol controlcharact charactallow allowdigit digitdevic deviccommunic communicprocess processstore storecommunic communiccharacter-ori character-oriinform informwritten writtenlanguag languagascii asciidevelop developencod encoduse useinclud includ26 26alphabet alphabetcharact charact10 10numer numerdigit digit11 1125 25special specialgraphic graphicsymbol symbolinclud includcontrol controlcharact charactcompat compatcomité comitéconsultatif consultatifintern interntéléphoniqu téléphoniquet ettélégraphiqu télégraphiquccitt ccittintern interntelegraph telegraphalphabet alphabet2 2ita2 ita2standard standard1924 1924fieldata fieldata1956 1956earli earliebcdic ebcdic1963 196364 64code coderequir requirascii asciiita2 ita2turn turnbase base5-bit 5-bittelegraph telegraphcode codeémile émilebaudot baudotinvent invent1870 1870patent patent1874 1874committe committedebat debatpossibl possiblshift shiftfunction functionlike likeita2 ita2would wouldallow allow64 64code coderepres repressix-bit six-bitcode codeshift shiftcode codecharact charactcode codedetermin determinchoic choicoption optionfollow followcharact charactcode codeallow allowcompact compactencod encodless lessreliabl reliabldata datatransmiss transmisserror errortransmit transmitshift shiftcode codetypic typicmake makelong longpart parttransmiss transmissunread unreadstandard standardcommitte committedecid decidshift shiftascii asciirequir requirleast leastseven-bit seven-bitcode codecommitte committeconsid consideight-bit eight-bitcode codesinc sinceight eightbit bitoctet octetwould wouldallow allowtwo twofour-bit four-bitpattern patterneffici efficiencod encodtwo twodigit digitbinary-cod binary-coddecim decimhowev howevwould wouldrequir requirdata datatransmiss transmisssend sendeight eightbit bitseven sevencould couldsuffic sufficcommitte committevote voteuse useseven-bit seven-bitcode codeminim minimcost costassoci associdata datatransmiss transmisssinc sincperfor perfortape tapetime timecould couldrecord recordeight eightbit bitone oneposit positalso alsoallow allowpariti paritibit biterror errorcheck checkdesir desireight-bit eight-bitmachin machinoctet octetnativ nativdata datatype typeuse usepariti pariticheck checktypic typicset seteighth eighthbit bit0 0printer printerhigh highbit bituse useenabl enablital italprint | 586 | ASCII | Computer-related introductions in 1963,Latin-script representations,ASCII,Character sets |
586-6 | ASCII
Section::::Design considerations.:Internal organization.
The code itself was patterned so that most control codes were together and all graphic codes were together, for ease of identification. The first two so-called "ASCII sticks" (32 positions) were reserved for control characters. The "space" character had to come before graphics to make sorting easier, so it became position 20; for the same reason, many special signs commonly used as separators were placed before digits. The committee decided it was important to support uppercase 64-character alphabets, and chose to pattern ASCII so it could be reduced easily to a usable 64-character set of graphic codes, as was done in the DEC SIXBIT code (1963). Lowercase letters were therefore not interleaved with uppercase. To keep options available for lowercase letters and other graphics, the special and numeric codes were arranged before the letters, and the letter "A" was placed in position 41 to match the draft of the corresponding British standard. The digits 0–9 are prefixed with 011, but the remaining 4 bits correspond to their respective values in binary, making conversion with binary-coded decimal straightforward.
Many of the non-alphanumeric characters were positioned to correspond to their shifted position on typewriters; an important subtlety is that these were based on "mechanical" typewriters, not "electric" typewriters. Mechanical typewriters followed the standard set by the Remington No. 2 (1878), the first typewriter with a shift key, and the shifted values of codice_1 were codice_2 early typewriters omitted "0" and "1", using "O" (capital letter "o") and "l" (lowercase letter "L") instead, but codice_3 and codice_4 pairs became standard once 0 and 1 became common. Thus, in ASCII codice_5 were placed in the second stick, positions 1–5, corresponding to the digits 1–5 in the adjacent stick. The parentheses could not correspond to "9" and "0", however, because the place corresponding to "0" was taken by the space character. This was accommodated by removing codice_6 (underscore) from "6" and shifting the remaining characters, which corresponded to many European typewriters that placed the parentheses with "8" and "9". This discrepancy from typewriters led to bit-paired keyboards, notably the Teletype Model 33, which used the left-shifted layout corresponding to ASCII, not to traditional mechanical typewriters. Electric typewriters, notably the IBM Selectric (1961), used a somewhat different layout that has become standard on computers following the IBM PC (1981), especially Model M (1984) and thus shift values for symbols on modern keyboards do not correspond as closely to the ASCII table as earlier keyboards did. The codice_7 pair also dates to the No. 2, and the codice_8 pairs were used on some keyboards (others, including the No. 2, did not shift codice_9 (comma) or codice_10 (full stop) so they could be used in uppercase without unshifting). However, ASCII split the codice_11 pair (dating to No. 2), and rearranged mathematical symbols (varied conventions, commonly codice_12) to codice_13.
Some common characters were not included, notably codice_14, while codice_15 were included as diacritics for international use, and codice_16 for mathematical use, together with the simple line characters codice_17 (in addition to common codice_18). The "@" symbol was not used in continental Europe and the committee expected it would be replaced by an accented "À" in the French variation, so the "@" was placed in position 40, right before the letter A.
The control codes felt essential for data transmission were the start of message (SOM), end of address (EOA), end of message (EOM), end of transmission (EOT), "who are you?" (WRU), "are you?" (RU), a reserved device control (DC0), synchronous idle (SYNC), and acknowledge (ACK). These were positioned to maximize the Hamming distance between their bit patterns.
section:design :designconsider considerintern internorgan organcode codepattern patterncontrol controlcode codetogeth togethgraphic graphiccode codetogeth togetheas easidentif identiffirst firsttwo twoso-cal so-cal`` ``ascii asciistick stick'' ''32 32posit positreserv reservcontrol controlcharact charact`` ``space space'' ''charact charactcome comegraphic graphicmake makesort sorteasier easierbecam becamposit posit20 20reason reasonmani manispecial specialsign signcommon commonuse usesepar separplace placedigit digitcommitte committedecid decidimport importsupport supportuppercas uppercas64-charact 64-charactalphabet alphabetchose chosepattern patternascii asciicould couldreduc reduceasili easiliusabl usabl64-charact 64-charactset setgraphic graphiccode codedone donedec decsixbit sixbitcode code1963 1963lowercas lowercasletter lettertherefor thereforinterleav interleavuppercas uppercaskeep keepoption optionavail availlowercas lowercasletter lettergraphic graphicspecial specialnumer numercode codearrang arrangletter letterletter letter`` ``'' ''place placeposit posit41 41match matchdraft draftcorrespond correspondbritish britishstandard standarddigit digit0–9 0–9prefix prefix011 011remain remain4 4bit bitcorrespond correspondrespect respectvalu valubinari binarimake makeconvers conversbinary-cod binary-coddecim decimstraightforward straightforwardmani maninon-alphanumer non-alphanumercharact charactposit positcorrespond correspondshift shiftposit posittypewrit typewritimport importsubtleti subtletibase base`` ``mechan mechan'' ''typewrit typewrit`` ``electr electr'' ''typewrit typewritmechan mechantypewrit typewritfollow followstandard standardset setremington remington2 21878 1878first firsttypewrit typewritshift shiftkey keyshift shiftvalu valucodice_1 codice_1codice_2 codice_2earli earlitypewrit typewritomit omit`` ``0 0'' ''`` ``1 1'' ''use use`` ``'' ''capit capitletter letter`` ``'' ''`` ``l l'' ''lowercas lowercasletter letter`` ``l l'' ''instead insteadcodice_3 codice_3codice_4 codice_4pair pairbecam becamstandard standard0 01 1becam becamcommon commonthus thusascii asciicodice_5 codice_5place placesecond secondstick stickposit posit1–5 1–5correspond corresponddigit digit1–5 1–5adjac adjacstick stickparenthes parenthescould couldcorrespond correspond`` ``9 9'' ''`` ``0 0'' ''howev howevplace placecorrespond correspond`` ``0 0'' ''taken takenspace spacecharact charactaccommod accommodremov removcodice_6 codice_6underscor underscor`` ``6 6'' ''shift shiftremain remaincharact charactcorrespond correspondmani manieuropean europeantypewrit typewritplace placeparenthes parenthes`` ``8 8'' ''`` ``9 9'' ''discrep discreptypewrit typewritled ledbit-pair bit-pairkeyboard keyboardnotabl notablteletyp teletypmodel model33 33use useleft-shift left-shiftlayout layoutcorrespond correspondascii asciitradit traditmechan mechantypewrit typewritelectr electrtypewrit typewritnotabl notablibm ibmselectr selectr1961 1961use usesomewhat somewhatdiffer differlayout layoutbecom becomstandard standardcomput computfollow followibm ibmpc pc1981 1981especi especimodel model1984 1984thus thusshift shiftvalu valusymbol symbolmodern modernkeyboard keyboardcorrespond correspondclose closeascii asciitabl tablearlier earlierkeyboard keyboardcodice_7 codice_7pair pairalso alsodate date2 2codice_8 codice_8pair pairuse usekeyboard keyboardother otherinclud includ2 2shift shiftcodice_9 codice_9comma commacodice_10 codice_10full fullstop stopcould coulduse useuppercas uppercaswithout withoutunshift unshifthowev howevascii asciisplit splitcodice_11 codice_11pair pairdate date2 2rearrang rearrangmathemat mathematsymbol symbolvari variconvent conventcommon commoncodice_12 codice_12codice_13 codice_13common commoncharact charactinclud includnotabl notablcodice_14 codice_14codice_15 codice_15includ includdiacrit diacritintern internuse usecodice_16 codice_16mathemat mathematuse usetogeth togethsimpl simplline linecharact charactcodice_17 codice_17addit additcommon commoncodice_18 codice_18`` ``'' ''symbol symboluse usecontinent continenteurop europcommitte committeexpect expectwould wouldreplac replacaccent accent`` ``à à'' ''french frenchvariat variat`` ``'' ''place placeposit posit40 40right rightletter lettercontrol controlcode codefelt feltessenti essentidata datatransmiss transmissstart startmessag messagsom somend endaddress addresseoa eoaend endmessag messageom eomend endtransmiss transmisseot eot`` ``'' ''wru wru`` ``'' ''ru rureserv reservdevic deviccontrol controldc0 dc0synchron synchronidl idlsync syncacknowledg acknowledgack ackposit positmaxim maximham hamdistanc distancbit bitpattern | 586 | ASCII | Computer-related introductions in 1963,Latin-script representations,ASCII,Character sets |
586-7 | ASCII
Section::::Design considerations.:Character order.
ASCII-code order is also called "ASCIIbetical" order. Collation of data is sometimes done in this order rather than "standard" alphabetical order (collating sequence). The main deviations in ASCII order are:
BULLET::::- All uppercase come before lowercase letters; for example, "Z" precedes "a"
BULLET::::- Digits and many punctuation marks come before letters
An intermediate order converts uppercase letters to lowercase before comparing ASCII values.
section:design :designconsider considercharact charactorder orderascii-cod ascii-codorder orderalso alsocall call`` ``asciibet asciibet'' ''order ordercollat collatdata datasometim sometimdone doneorder orderrather rather`` ``standard standard'' ''alphabet alphabetorder ordercollat collatsequenc sequencmain maindeviat deviatascii asciiorder orderbullet bullet:- :-uppercas uppercascome comelowercas lowercasletter letterexampl exampl`` ``z z'' ''preced preced`` ``'' ''bullet bullet:- :-digit digitmani manipunctuat punctuatmark markcome comeletter letterintermedi intermediorder orderconvert convertuppercas uppercasletter letterlowercas lowercascompar comparascii asciivalu | 586 | ASCII | Computer-related introductions in 1963,Latin-script representations,ASCII,Character sets |
586-8 | ASCII
Section::::Character groups.
section:charact :charactgroup | 586 | ASCII | Computer-related introductions in 1963,Latin-script representations,ASCII,Character sets |
586-9 | ASCII
Section::::Character groups.:Control characters.
ASCII reserves the first 32 codes (numbers 0–31 decimal) for control characters: codes originally intended not to represent printable information, but rather to control devices (such as printers) that make use of ASCII, or to provide meta-information about data streams such as those stored on magnetic tape.
For example, character 10 represents the "line feed" function (which causes a printer to advance its paper), and character 8 represents "backspace". refers to control characters that do not include carriage return, line feed or white space as non-whitespace control characters. Except for the control characters that prescribe elementary line-oriented formatting, ASCII does not define any mechanism for describing the structure or appearance of text within a document. Other schemes, such as markup languages, address page and document layout and formatting.
The original ASCII standard used only short descriptive phrases for each control character. The ambiguity this caused was sometimes intentional, for example where a character would be used slightly differently on a terminal link than on a data stream, and sometimes accidental, for example with the meaning of "delete".
Probably the most influential single device on the interpretation of these characters was the Teletype Model 33 ASR, which was a printing terminal with an available paper tape reader/punch option. Paper tape was a very popular medium for long-term program storage until the 1980s, less costly and in some ways less fragile than magnetic tape. In particular, the Teletype Model 33 machine assignments for codes 17 (Control-Q, DC1, also known as XON), 19 (Control-S, DC3, also known as XOFF), and 127 (Delete) became de facto standards. The Model 33 was also notable for taking the description of Control-G (code 7, BEL, meaning audibly alert the operator) literally, as the unit contained an actual bell which it rang when it received a BEL character. Because the keytop for the O key also showed a left-arrow symbol (from ASCII-1963, which had this character instead of underscore), a noncompliant use of code 15 (Control-O, Shift In) interpreted as "delete previous character" was also adopted by many early timesharing systems but eventually became neglected.
When a Teletype 33 ASR equipped with the automatic paper tape reader received a Control-S (XOFF, an abbreviation for transmit off), it caused the tape reader to stop; receiving Control-Q (XON, "transmit on") caused the tape reader to resume. This technique became adopted by several early computer operating systems as a "handshaking" signal warning a sender to stop transmission because of impending overflow; it persists to this day in many systems as a manual output control technique. On some systems Control-S retains its meaning but Control-Q is replaced by a second Control-S to resume output. The 33 ASR also could be configured to employ Control-R (DC2) and Control-T (DC4) to start and stop the tape punch; on some units equipped with this function, the corresponding control character lettering on the keycap above the letter was TAPE and TAPE respectively.
The Teletype could not move the head backwards, so it did not put a key on the keyboard to send a BS (backspace). Instead there was a key marked that sent code 127 (DEL). The purpose of this key was to erase mistakes in a hand-typed paper tape: the operator had to push a button on the tape punch to back it up, then type the rubout, which punched all holes and replaced the mistake with a character that was intended to be ignored. Teletypes were commonly used for the less-expensive computers from Digital Equipment Corporation, so these systems had to use the available key and thus the DEL code to erase the previous character. Because of this, DEC video terminals (by default) sent the DEL code for the key marked "Backspace" while the key marked "Delete" sent an escape sequence, while many other terminals sent BS for the Backspace key. The Unix terminal driver could only use one code to back up, this could be set to BS "or" DEL, but not both, resulting in a very long period of annoyance where you had to correct it depending on what terminal you were using (shells that allow line editing, such as ksh, bash, and zsh, understand both). The assumption that no key sent a BS caused Control+H to be used for other purposes, such as the "help" prefix command in GNU Emacs.
Many more of the control codes have been given meanings quite different from their original ones. The "escape" character (ESC, code 27), for example, was intended originally to allow sending other control characters as literals instead of invoking their meaning. This is the same meaning of "escape" encountered in URL encodings, C language strings, and other systems where certain characters have a reserved meaning. Over time this meaning has been co-opted and has eventually been changed. In modern use, an ESC sent to the terminal usually indicates the start of a command sequence usually in the form of a so-called "ANSI escape code" (or, more properly, a "Control Sequence Introducer") from ECMA-48 (1972) and its successors, beginning with ESC followed by a "[" (left-bracket) character. An ESC sent from the terminal is most often used as an out-of-band character used to terminate an operation, as in the TECO and vi text editors. In graphical user interface (GUI) and windowing systems, ESC generally causes an application to abort its current operation or to exit (terminate) altogether.
The inherent ambiguity of many control characters, combined with their historical usage, created problems when transferring "plain text" files between systems. The best example of this is the newline problem on various operating systems. Teletype machines required that a line of text be terminated with both "Carriage Return" (which moves the printhead to the beginning of the line) and "Line Feed" (which advances the paper one line without moving the printhead). The name "Carriage Return" comes from the fact that on a manual typewriter the carriage holding the paper moved while the position where the typebars struck the ribbon remained stationary. The entire carriage had to be pushed (returned) to the right in order to position the left margin of the paper for the next line.
DEC operating systems (OS/8, RT-11, RSX-11, RSTS, TOPS-10, etc.) used both characters to mark the end of a line so that the console device (originally Teletype machines) would work. By the time so-called "glass TTYs" (later called CRTs or terminals) came along, the convention was so well established that backward compatibility necessitated continuing the convention. When Gary Kildall created CP/M he was inspired by some command line interface conventions used in DEC's RT-11. Until the introduction of PC DOS in 1981, IBM had no hand in this because their 1970s operating systems used EBCDIC instead of ASCII and they were oriented toward punch-card input and line printer output on which the concept of carriage return was meaningless. IBM's PC DOS (also marketed as MS-DOS by Microsoft) inherited the convention by virtue of being loosely based on CP/M, and Windows inherited it from MS-DOS.
Unfortunately, requiring two characters to mark the end of a line introduces unnecessary complexity and questions as to how to interpret each character when encountered alone. To simplify matters plain text data streams, including files, on Multics used line feed (LF) alone as a line terminator. Unix and Unix-like systems, and Amiga systems, adopted this convention from Multics. The original Macintosh OS, Apple DOS, and ProDOS, on the other hand, used carriage return (CR) alone as a line terminator; however, since Apple replaced these operating systems with the Unix-based macOS operating system, they now use line feed (LF) as well. The Radio Shack TRS-80 also used a lone CR to terminate lines.
Computers attached to the ARPANET included machines running operating systems such as TOPS-10 and TENEX using CR-LF line endings, machines running operating systems such as Multics using LF line endings, and machines running operating systems such as OS/360 that represented lines as a character count followed by the characters of the line and that used EBCDIC rather than ASCII. The Telnet protocol defined an ASCII "Network Virtual Terminal" (NVT), so that connections between hosts with different line-ending conventions and character sets could be supported by transmitting a standard text format over the network. Telnet used ASCII along with CR-LF line endings, and software using other conventions would translate between the local conventions and the NVT. The File Transfer Protocol adopted the Telnet protocol, including use of the Network Virtual Terminal, for use when transmitting commands and transferring data in the default ASCII mode. This adds complexity to implementations of those protocols, and to other network protocols, such as those used for E-mail and the World Wide Web, on systems not using the NVT's CR-LF line-ending convention.
The PDP-6 monitor, and its PDP-10 successor TOPS-10, used Control-Z (SUB) as an end-of-file indication for input from a terminal. Some operating systems such as CP/M tracked file length only in units of disk blocks and used Control-Z to mark the end of the actual text in the file. For these reasons, EOF, or end-of-file, was used colloquially and conventionally as a three-letter acronym for Control-Z instead of SUBstitute. The end-of-text code (ETX), also known as Control-C, was inappropriate for a variety of reasons, while using Z as the control code to end a file is analogous to it ending the alphabet and serves as a very convenient mnemonic aid. A historically common and still prevalent convention uses the ETX code convention to interrupt and halt a program via an input data stream, usually from a keyboard.
In C library and Unix conventions, the null character is used to terminate text strings; such null-terminated strings can be known in abbreviation as ASCIZ or ASCIIZ, where here Z stands for "zero".
Other representations might be used by specialist equipment, for example ISO 2047 graphics or hexadecimal numbers.
section:charact :charactgroup groupcontrol controlcharact charactascii asciireserv reservfirst first32 32code codenumber number0–31 0–31decim decimcontrol controlcharact charactcode codeorigin originintend intendrepres represprintabl printablinform informrather rathercontrol controldevic devicprinter printermake makeuse useascii asciiprovid providmeta-inform meta-informdata datastream streamstore storemagnet magnettape tapeexampl examplcharact charact10 10repres repres`` ``line linefeed feed'' ''function functioncaus causprinter printeradvanc advancpaper papercharact charact8 8repres repres`` ``backspac backspac'' ''refer refercontrol controlcharact charactinclud includcarriag carriagreturn returnline linefeed feedwhite whitespace spacenon-whitespac non-whitespaccontrol controlcharact charactexcept exceptcontrol controlcharact charactprescrib prescribelementari elementariline-ori line-oriformat formatascii asciidefin definmechan mechandescrib describstructur structurappear appeartext textwithin withindocument documentscheme schememarkup markuplanguag languagaddress addresspage pagedocument documentlayout layoutformat formatorigin originascii asciistandard standarduse useshort shortdescript descriptphrase phrasecontrol controlcharact charactambigu ambigucaus caussometim sometimintent intentexampl examplcharact charactwould woulduse useslight slightdiffer differtermin terminlink linkdata datastream streamsometim sometimaccident accidentexampl examplmean mean`` ``delet delet'' ''probabl probablinfluenti influentisingl singldevic devicinterpret interpretcharact charactteletyp teletypmodel model33 33asr asrprint printtermin terminavail availpaper papertape tapereader/punch reader/punchoption optionpaper papertape tapepopular popularmedium mediumlong-term long-termprogram programstorag storag1980s 1980sless lesscost costway wayless lessfragil fragilmagnet magnettape tapeparticular particularteletyp teletypmodel model33 33machin machinassign assigncode code17 17control-q control-qdc1 dc1also alsoknown knownxon xon19 19control- control-dc3 dc3also alsoknown knownxoff xoff127 127delet deletbecam becamde defacto factostandard standardmodel model33 33also alsonotabl notabltake takedescript descriptcontrol-g control-gcode code7 7bel belmean meanaudibl audiblalert alertoper operliter literunit unitcontain containactual actualbell bellrang rangreceiv receivbel belcharact charactkeytop keytopkey keyalso alsoshow showleft-arrow left-arrowsymbol symbolascii-1963 ascii-1963charact charactinstead insteadunderscor underscornoncompli noncompliuse usecode code15 15control-o control-oshift shiftinterpret interpret`` ``delet deletprevious previouscharact charact'' ''also alsoadopt adoptmani maniearli earlitimeshar timesharsystem systemeventu eventubecam becamneglect neglectteletyp teletyp33 33asr asrequip equipautomat automatpaper papertape tapereader readerreceiv receivcontrol- control-xoff xoffabbrevi abbrevitransmit transmitcaus caustape tapereader readerstop stopreceiv receivcontrol-q control-qxon xon`` ``transmit transmit'' ''caus caustape tapereader readerresum resumtechniqu techniqubecam becamadopt adoptsever severearli earlicomput computoper opersystem system`` ``handshak handshak'' ''signal signalwarn warnsender senderstop stoptransmiss transmissimpend impendoverflow overflowpersist persistday daymani manisystem systemmanual manualoutput outputcontrol controltechniqu techniqusystem systemcontrol- control-retain retainmean meancontrol-q control-qreplac replacsecond secondcontrol- control-resum resumoutput output33 33asr asralso alsocould couldconfigur configuremploy employcontrol-r control-rdc2 dc2control-t control-tdc4 dc4start startstop stoptape tapepunch punchunit unitequip equipfunction functioncorrespond correspondcontrol controlcharact charactletter letterkeycap keycapletter lettertape tapetape taperespect respectteletyp teletypcould couldmove movehead headbackward backwardput putkey keykeyboard keyboardsend sendbs bsbackspac backspacinstead insteadkey keymark marksent sentcode code127 127del delpurpos purposkey keyeras erasmistak mistakhand-typ hand-typpaper papertape tapeoper operpush pushbutton buttontape tapepunch punchback backtype typerubout ruboutpunch punchhole holereplac replacmistak mistakcharact charactintend intendignor ignorteletyp teletypcommon commonuse useless-expens less-expenscomput computdigit digitequip equipcorpor corporsystem systemuse useavail availkey keythus thusdel delcode codeeras erasprevious previouscharact charactdec decvideo videotermin termindefault defaultsent sentdel delcode codekey keymark mark`` ``backspac backspac'' ''key keymark mark`` ``delet delet'' ''sent sentescap escapsequenc sequencmani manitermin terminsent sentbs bsbackspac backspackey keyunix unixtermin termindriver drivercould coulduse useone onecode codeback backcould couldset setbs bs`` ``'' ''del delresult resultlong longperiod periodannoy annoycorrect correctdepend dependtermin terminuse useshell shellallow allowline lineedit editksh kshbash bashzsh zshunderstand understandassumpt assumptkey keysent sentbs bscaus causcontrol+h control+huse usepurpos purpos`` ``help help'' ''prefix prefixcommand commandgnu gnuemac emacmani manicontrol controlcode codegiven givenmean meanquit quitdiffer differorigin originone one`` ``escap escap'' ''charact charactesc esccode code27 27exampl examplintend intendorigin originallow allowsend sendcontrol controlcharact charactliter literinstead insteadinvok invokmean meanmean mean`` ``escap escap'' ''encount encounturl urlencod encodc clanguag languagstring stringsystem systemcertain certaincharact charactreserv reservmean meantime timemean meanco-opt co-opteventu eventuchang changmodern modernuse useesc escsent senttermin terminusual usualindic indicstart startcommand commandsequenc sequencusual usualform formso-cal so-cal`` ``ansi ansiescap escapcode code'' ''proper proper`` ``control controlsequenc sequencintroduc introduc'' ''ecma-48 ecma-481972 1972successor successorbegin beginesc escfollow follow`` ```` ``left-bracket left-bracketcharact charactesc escsent senttermin terminoften oftenuse useout-of-band out-of-bandcharact charactuse usetermin terminoper operteco tecovi vitext texteditor editorgraphic graphicuser userinterfac interfacgui guiwindow windowsystem systemesc escgeneral generalcaus causapplic applicabort abortcurrent currentoper operexit exittermin terminaltogeth altogethinher inherambigu ambigumani manicontrol controlcharact charactcombin combinhistor historusag usagcreat creatproblem problemtransfer transfer`` ``plain plaintext text'' ''file filesystem systembest bestexampl examplnewlin newlinproblem problemvarious variousoper opersystem systemteletyp teletypmachin machinrequir requirline linetext texttermin termin`` ``carriag carriagreturn return'' ''move moveprinthead printheadbegin beginline line`` ``line linefeed feed'' ''advanc advancpaper paperone oneline linewithout withoutmove moveprinthead printheadname name`` ``carriag carriagreturn return'' ''come comefact factmanual manualtypewrit typewritcarriag carriaghold holdpaper papermove moveposit posittypebar typebarstruck struckribbon ribbonremain remainstationari stationarientir entircarriag carriagpush pushreturn returnright rightorder orderposit positleft leftmargin marginpaper papernext nextline linedec decoper opersystem systemos/8 os/8rt-11 rt-11rsx-11 rsx-11rsts rststops-10 tops-10etc etcuse usecharact charactmark markend endline lineconsol consoldevic devicorigin originteletyp teletypmachin machinwould wouldwork worktime timeso-cal so-cal`` ``glass glassttys ttys'' ''later latercall callcrts crtstermin termincame camealong alongconvent conventwell wellestablish establishbackward backwardcompat compatnecessit necessitcontinu continuconvent conventgari garikildal kildalcreat creatcp/m cp/minspir inspircommand commandline lineinterfac interfacconvent conventuse usedec dec's 'srt-11 rt-11introduct introductpc pcdos dos1981 1981ibm ibmhand hand1970s 1970soper opersystem systemuse useebcdic ebcdicinstead insteadascii asciiorient orienttoward towardpunch-card punch-cardinput inputline lineprinter printeroutput outputconcept conceptcarriag carriagreturn returnmeaningless meaninglessibm ibm's 'spc pcdos dosalso alsomarket marketms-dos ms-dosmicrosoft microsoftinherit inheritconvent conventvirtu virtuloos loosbase basecp/m cp/mwindow windowinherit inheritms-dos ms-dosunfortun unfortunrequir requirtwo twocharact charactmark markend endline lineintroduc introducunnecessari unnecessaricomplex complexquestion questioninterpret interpretcharact charactencount encountalon alonsimplifi simplifimatter matterplain plaintext textdata datastream streaminclud includfile filemultic multicuse useline linefeed feedlf lfalon alonline linetermin terminunix unixunix-lik unix-liksystem systemamiga amigasystem systemadopt adoptconvent conventmultic multicorigin originmacintosh macintoshos osappl appldos dosprodo prodohand handuse usecarriag carriagreturn returncr cralon alonline linetermin terminhowev howevsinc sincappl applreplac replacoper opersystem systemunix-bas unix-basmaco macooper opersystem systemuse useline linefeed feedlf lfwell wellradio radioshack shacktrs-80 trs-80also alsouse uselone lonecr crtermin terminline linecomput computattach attacharpanet arpanetinclud includmachin machinrun runoper opersystem systemtops-10 tops-10tenex tenexuse usecr-lf cr-lfline lineend endmachin machinrun runoper opersystem systemmultic multicuse uself lfline lineend endmachin machinrun runoper opersystem systemos/360 os/360repres represline linecharact charactcount countfollow followcharact charactline lineuse useebcdic ebcdicrather ratherascii asciitelnet telnetprotocol protocoldefin definascii ascii`` ``network networkvirtual virtualtermin termin'' ''nvt nvtconnect connecthost hostdiffer differline-end line-endconvent conventcharact charactset setcould couldsupport supporttransmit transmitstandard standardtext textformat formatnetwork networktelnet telnetuse useascii asciialong alongcr-lf cr-lfline lineend endsoftwar softwaruse useconvent conventwould wouldtranslat translatlocal localconvent conventnvt nvtfile filetransfer transferprotocol protocoladopt adopttelnet telnetprotocol protocolinclud includuse usenetwork networkvirtual virtualtermin terminuse usetransmit transmitcommand commandtransfer transferdata datadefault defaultascii asciimode modeadd addcomplex compleximplement implementprotocol protocolnetwork networkprotocol protocoluse usee-mail e-mailworld worldwide wideweb websystem systemuse usenvt nvt's 'scr-lf cr-lfline-end line-endconvent conventpdp-6 pdp-6monitor monitorpdp-10 pdp-10successor successortops-10 tops-10use usecontrol-z control-zsub subend-of-fil end-of-filindic indicinput inputtermin terminoper opersystem systemcp/m cp/mtrack trackfile filelength lengthunit unitdisk diskblock blockuse usecontrol-z control-zmark markend endactual actualtext textfile filereason reasoneof eofend-of-fil end-of-filuse usecolloqui colloquiconvent conventthree-lett three-lettacronym acronymcontrol-z control-zinstead insteadsubstitut substitutend-of-text end-of-textcode codeetx etxalso alsoknown knowncontrol-c control-cinappropri inapproprivarieti varietireason reasonuse usez zcontrol controlcode codeend endfile fileanalog analogend endalphabet alphabetserv servconveni convenimnemon mnemonaid aidhistor historcommon commonstill stillpreval prevalconvent conventuse useetx etxcode codeconvent conventinterrupt interrupthalt haltprogram programvia viainput inputdata datastream streamusual usualkeyboard keyboardc clibrari librariunix unixconvent conventnull nullcharact charactuse usetermin termintext textstring stringnull-termin null-terminstring stringknown knownabbrevi abbreviasciz ascizasciiz asciizz zstand stand`` ``zero zero'' ''represent representmight mightuse usespecialist specialistequip equipexampl exampliso iso2047 2047graphic graphichexadecim hexadecimnumber | 586 | ASCII | Computer-related introductions in 1963,Latin-script representations,ASCII,Character sets |
586-10 | ASCII
Section::::Character groups.:Printable characters.
Codes 20 to 7E, known as the printable characters, represent letters, digits, punctuation marks, and a few miscellaneous symbols. There are 95 printable characters in total.
Code 20, the "space" character, denotes the space between words, as produced by the space bar of a keyboard. Since the space character is considered an invisible graphic (rather than a control character) it is listed in the table below instead of in the previous section.
Code 7F corresponds to the non-printable "delete" (DEL) control character and is therefore omitted from this chart; it is covered in the previous section's chart. Earlier versions of ASCII used the up arrow instead of the caret (5E) and the left arrow instead of the underscore (5F).
]]
section:charact :charactgroup groupprintabl printablcharact charactcode code20 207e 7eknown knownprintabl printablcharact charactrepres represletter letterdigit digitpunctuat punctuatmark markmiscellan miscellansymbol symbol95 95printabl printablcharact characttotal totalcode code20 20`` ``space space'' ''charact charactdenot denotspace spaceword wordproduc producspace spacebar barkeyboard keyboardsinc sincspace spacecharact charactconsid considinvis invisgraphic graphicrather rathercontrol controlcharact charactlist listtabl tablinstead insteadprevious previoussection sectioncode code7f 7fcorrespond correspondnon-print non-print`` ``delet delet'' ''del delcontrol controlcharact characttherefor thereforomit omitchart chartcover coverprevious previoussection section's 'schart chartearlier earlierversion versionascii asciiuse usearrow arrowinstead insteadcaret caret5e 5eleft leftarrow arrowinstead insteadunderscor underscor5f | 586 | ASCII | Computer-related introductions in 1963,Latin-script representations,ASCII,Character sets |
586-11 | ASCII
Section::::Use.
ASCII was first used commercially during 1963 as a seven-bit teleprinter code for American Telephone & Telegraph's TWX (TeletypeWriter eXchange) network. TWX originally used the earlier five-bit ITA2, which was also used by the competing Telex teleprinter system. Bob Bemer introduced features such as the escape sequence. His British colleague Hugh McGregor Ross helped to popularize this work according to Bemer, "so much so that the code that was to become ASCII was first called the "Bemer–Ross Code" in Europe". Because of his extensive work on ASCII, Bemer has been called "the father of ASCII".
On March 11, 1968, U.S. President Lyndon B. Johnson mandated that all computers purchased by the United States Federal Government support ASCII, stating:
I have also approved recommendations of the Secretary of Commerce [Luther H. Hodges] regarding standards for recording the Standard Code for Information Interchange on magnetic tapes and paper tapes when they are used in computer operations.
All computers and related equipment configurations brought into the Federal Government inventory on and after July 1, 1969, must have the capability to use the Standard Code for Information Interchange and the formats prescribed by the magnetic tape and paper tape standards when these media are used.
ASCII was the most common character encoding on the World Wide Web until December 2007, when UTF-8 encoding surpassed it; UTF-8 is backward compatible with ASCII.
section:use :useascii asciifirst firstuse usecommerci commerci1963 1963seven-bit seven-bitteleprint teleprintcode codeamerican americantelephon telephontelegraph telegraph's 'stwx twxteletypewrit teletypewritexchang exchangnetwork networktwx twxorigin originuse useearlier earlierfive-bit five-bitita2 ita2also alsouse usecompet compettelex telexteleprint teleprintsystem systembob bobbemer bemerintroduc introducfeatur featurescap escapsequenc sequencbritish britishcolleagu colleaguhugh hughmcgregor mcgregorross rosshelp helppopular popularwork workaccord accordbemer bemer`` ``much muchcode codebecom becomascii asciifirst firstcall call`` ``bemer–ross bemer–rosscode code'' ''europ europ'' ''extens extenswork workascii asciibemer bemercall call`` ``father fatherascii ascii'' ''march march11 111968 1968u.s. u.s.presid presidlyndon lyndonb. b.johnson johnsonmandat mandatcomput computpurchas purchasunit unitstate statefeder federgovern governsupport supportascii asciistate statealso alsoapprov approvrecommend recommendsecretari secretaricommerc commercluther lutherh. h.hodg hodgregard regardstandard standardrecord recordstandard standardcode codeinform informinterchang interchangmagnet magnettape tapepaper papertape tapeuse usecomput computoper opercomput computrelat relatequip equipconfigur configurbrought broughtfeder federgovern governinventori inventorijuli juli1 11969 1969must mustcapabl capabluse usestandard standardcode codeinform informinterchang interchangformat formatprescrib prescribmagnet magnettape tapepaper papertape tapestandard standardmedia mediause useascii asciicommon commoncharact charactencod encodworld worldwide wideweb webdecemb decemb2007 2007utf-8 utf-8encod encodsurpass surpassutf-8 utf-8backward backwardcompat compatascii | 586 | ASCII | Computer-related introductions in 1963,Latin-script representations,ASCII,Character sets |
586-12 | ASCII
Section::::Variants and derivations.
As computer technology spread throughout the world, different standards bodies and corporations developed many variations of ASCII to facilitate the expression of non-English languages that used Roman-based alphabets. One could class some of these variations as "ASCII extensions", although some misuse that term to represent all variants, including those that do not preserve ASCII's character-map in the 7-bit range. Furthermore, the ASCII extensions have also been mislabelled as ASCII.
section:variant :variantderiv derivcomput computtechnolog technologspread spreadthroughout throughoutworld worlddiffer differstandard standardbodi bodicorpor corpordevelop developmani manivariat variatascii asciifacilit facilitexpress expressnon-english non-englishlanguag languaguse useroman-bas roman-basalphabet alphabetone onecould couldclass classvariat variat`` ``ascii asciiextens extens'' ''although althoughmisus misusterm termrepres represvariant variantinclud includpreserv preservascii ascii's 'scharacter-map character-map7-bit 7-bitrang rangfurthermor furthermorascii asciiextens extensalso alsomislabel mislabelascii | 586 | ASCII | Computer-related introductions in 1963,Latin-script representations,ASCII,Character sets |
586-13 | ASCII
Section::::Variants and derivations.:7-bit codes.
From early in its development, ASCII was intended to be just one of several national variants of an international character code standard.
Other international standards bodies have ratified character encodings such as ISO 646 (1967) that are identical or nearly identical to ASCII, with extensions for characters outside the English alphabet and symbols used outside the United States, such as the symbol for the United Kingdom's pound sterling (£). Almost every country needed an adapted version of ASCII, since ASCII suited the needs of only the US and a few other countries. For example, Canada had its own version that supported French characters.
Many other countries developed variants of ASCII to include non-English letters (e.g. é, ñ, ß, Ł), currency symbols (e.g. £, ¥), etc. See also YUSCII (Yugoslavia).
It would share most characters in common, but assign other locally useful characters to several code points reserved for "national use". However, the four years that elapsed between the publication of ASCII-1963 and ISO's first acceptance of an international recommendation during 1967 caused ASCII's choices for the national use characters to seem to be de facto standards for the world, causing confusion and incompatibility once other countries did begin to make their own assignments to these code points.
ISO/IEC 646, like ASCII, is a 7-bit character set. It does not make any additional codes available, so the same code points encoded different characters in different countries. Escape codes were defined to indicate which national variant applied to a piece of text, but they were rarely used, so it was often impossible to know what variant to work with and, therefore, which character a code represented, and in general, text-processing systems could cope with only one variant anyway.
Because the bracket and brace characters of ASCII were assigned to "national use" code points that were used for accented letters in other national variants of ISO/IEC 646, a German, French, or Swedish, etc. programmer using their national variant of ISO/IEC 646, rather than ASCII, had to write, and thus read, something such as
instead of
C trigraphs were created to solve this problem for ANSI C, although their late introduction and inconsistent implementation in compilers limited their use. Many programmers kept their computers on US-ASCII, so plain-text in Swedish, German etc. (for example, in e-mail or Usenet) contained "{, }" and similar variants in the middle of words, something those programmers got used to. For example, a Swedish programmer mailing another programmer asking if they should go for lunch, could get "N{ jag har sm|rg}sar" as the answer, which should be "Nä jag har smörgåsar" meaning "No I've got sandwiches".
section:variant :variantderiv deriv:7-bit :7-bitcode codeearli earlidevelop developascii asciiintend intendone onesever severnation nationvariant variantintern interncharact charactcode codestandard standardintern internstandard standardbodi bodiratifi ratificharact charactencod encodiso iso646 6461967 1967ident identnear nearident identascii asciiextens extenscharact charactoutsid outsidenglish englishalphabet alphabetsymbol symboluse useoutsid outsidunit unitstate statesymbol symbolunit unitkingdom kingdom's 'spound poundsterl sterl£ £almost almosteveri evericountri countrineed needadapt adaptversion versionascii asciisinc sincascii asciisuit suitneed needus uscountri countriexampl examplcanada canadaversion versionsupport supportfrench frenchcharact charactmani manicountri countridevelop developvariant variantascii asciiinclud includnon-english non-englishletter lettere.g e.gé éñ ñß ßł łcurrenc currencsymbol symbole.g e.g£ £¥ ¥etc etcsee seealso alsoyuscii yusciiyugoslavia yugoslaviawould wouldshare sharecharact charactcommon commonassign assignlocal localuse usecharact charactsever severcode codepoint pointreserv reserv`` ``nation nationuse use'' ''howev howevfour fouryear yearelaps elapspublic publicascii-1963 ascii-1963iso iso's 'sfirst firstaccept acceptintern internrecommend recommend1967 1967caus causascii ascii's 'schoic choicnation nationuse usecharact charactseem seemde defacto factostandard standardworld worldcaus causconfus confusincompat incompatcountri countribegin beginmake makeassign assigncode codepoint pointiso/iec iso/iec646 646like likeascii ascii7-bit 7-bitcharact charactset setmake makeaddit additcode codeavail availcode codepoint pointencod encoddiffer differcharact charactdiffer differcountri countriescap escapcode codedefin definindic indicnation nationvariant variantappli applipiec piectext textrare rareuse useoften oftenimposs impossknow knowvariant variantwork worktherefor thereforcharact charactcode coderepres represgeneral generaltext-process text-processsystem systemcould couldcope copeone onevariant variantanyway anywaybracket bracketbrace bracecharact charactascii asciiassign assign`` ``nation nationuse use'' ''code codepoint pointuse useaccent accentletter letternation nationvariant variantiso/iec iso/iec646 646german germanfrench frenchswedish swedishetc etcprogramm programmuse usenation nationvariant variantiso/iec iso/iec646 646rather ratherascii asciiwrite writethus thusread readsometh somethinstead insteadc ctrigraph trigraphcreat creatsolv solvproblem problemansi ansic calthough althoughlate lateintroduct introductinconsist inconsistimplement implementcompil compillimit limituse usemani maniprogramm programmkept keptcomput computus-ascii us-asciiplain-text plain-textswedish swedishgerman germanetc etcexampl example-mail e-mailusenet usenetcontain contain`` ``'' ''similar similarvariant variantmiddl middlword wordsometh somethprogramm programmgot gotuse useexampl examplswedish swedishprogramm programmmail mailanoth anothprogramm programmask askgo golunch lunchcould couldget get`` ``n njag jaghar harsm|rg sm|rgsar sar'' ''answer answer`` ``nä näjag jaghar harsmörgåsar smörgåsar'' ''mean mean`` ``ve vegot gotsandwich sandwich'' | 586 | ASCII | Computer-related introductions in 1963,Latin-script representations,ASCII,Character sets |
586-14 | ASCII
Section::::Variants and derivations.:8-bit codes.
Eventually, as 8-, 16- and 32-bit (and later 64-bit) computers began to replace 12-, 18- and 36-bit computers as the norm, it became common to use an 8-bit byte to store each character in memory, providing an opportunity for extended, 8-bit relatives of ASCII. In most cases these developed as true extensions of ASCII, leaving the original character-mapping intact, but adding additional character definitions after the first 128 (i.e., 7-bit) characters.
Encodings include ISCII (India), VISCII (Vietnam). Although these encodings are sometimes referred to as ASCII, true ASCII is defined strictly only by the ANSI standard.
Most early home computer systems developed their own 8-bit character sets containing line-drawing and game glyphs, and often filled in some or all of the control characters from 0 to 31 with more graphics. Kaypro CP/M computers used the "upper" 128 characters for the Greek alphabet.
The PETSCII code Commodore International used for their 8-bit systems is probably unique among post-1970 codes in being based on ASCII-1963, instead of the more common ASCII-1967, such as found on the ZX Spectrum computer. Atari 8-bit computers and Galaksija computers also used ASCII variants.
The IBM PC defined code page 437, which replaced the control characters with graphic symbols such as smiley faces, and mapped additional graphic characters to the upper 128 positions. Operating systems such as DOS supported these code pages, and manufacturers of IBM PCs supported them in hardware. Digital Equipment Corporation developed the Multinational Character Set (DEC-MCS) for use in the popular VT220 terminal as one of the first extensions designed more for international languages than for block graphics. The Macintosh defined Mac OS Roman and Postscript also defined a set, both of these contained both international letters and typographic punctuation marks instead of graphics, more like modern character sets.
The ISO/IEC 8859 standard (derived from the DEC-MCS) finally provided a standard that most systems copied (at least as accurately as they copied ASCII, but with many substitutions). A popular further extension designed by Microsoft, Windows-1252 (often mislabeled as ISO-8859-1), added the typographic punctuation marks needed for traditional text printing. ISO-8859-1, Windows-1252, and the original 7-bit ASCII were the most common character encodings until 2008 when UTF-8 became more common.
ISO/IEC 4873 introduced 32 additional control codes defined in the 80–9F hexadecimal range, as part of extending the 7-bit ASCII encoding to become an 8-bit system.
section:variant :variantderiv deriv:8-bit :8-bitcode codeeventu eventu8- 8-16- 16-32-bit 32-bitlater later64-bit 64-bitcomput computbegan beganreplac replac12- 12-18- 18-36-bit 36-bitcomput computnorm normbecam becamcommon commonuse use8-bit 8-bitbyte bytestore storecharact charactmemori memoriprovid providopportun opportunextend extend8-bit 8-bitrelat relatascii asciicase casedevelop developtrue trueextens extensascii asciileav leavorigin origincharacter-map character-mapintact intactad adaddit additcharact charactdefinit definitfirst first128 128i.e. i.e.7-bit 7-bitcharact charactencod encodinclud includiscii isciiindia indiaviscii visciivietnam vietnamalthough althoughencod encodsometim sometimrefer referascii asciitrue trueascii asciidefin definstrict strictansi ansistandard standardearli earlihome homecomput computsystem systemdevelop develop8-bit 8-bitcharact charactset setcontain containline-draw line-drawgame gameglyph glyphoften oftenfill fillcontrol controlcharact charact0 031 31graphic graphickaypro kayprocp/m cp/mcomput computuse use`` ``upper upper'' ''128 128charact charactgreek greekalphabet alphabetpetscii petsciicode codecommodor commodorintern internuse use8-bit 8-bitsystem systemprobabl probabluniqu uniquamong amongpost-1970 post-1970code codebase baseascii-1963 ascii-1963instead insteadcommon commonascii-1967 ascii-1967found foundzx zxspectrum spectrumcomput computatari atari8-bit 8-bitcomput computgalaksija galaksijacomput computalso alsouse useascii asciivariant variantibm ibmpc pcdefin defincode codepage page437 437replac replaccontrol controlcharact charactgraphic graphicsymbol symbolsmiley smileyface facemap mapaddit additgraphic graphiccharact charactupper upper128 128posit positoper opersystem systemdos dossupport supportcode codepage pagemanufactur manufacturibm ibmpcs pcssupport supporthardwar hardwardigit digitequip equipcorpor corpordevelop developmultin multincharact charactset setdec-mc dec-mcuse usepopular popularvt220 vt220termin terminone onefirst firstextens extensdesign designintern internlanguag languagblock blockgraphic graphicmacintosh macintoshdefin definmac macos osroman romanpostscript postscriptalso alsodefin definset setcontain containintern internletter lettertypograph typographpunctuat punctuatmark markinstead insteadgraphic graphiclike likemodern moderncharact charactset setiso/iec iso/iec8859 8859standard standardderiv derivdec-mc dec-mcfinal finalprovid providstandard standardsystem systemcopi copileast leastaccur accurcopi copiascii asciimani manisubstitut substitutpopular popularextens extensdesign designmicrosoft microsoftwindows-1252 windows-1252often oftenmislabel mislabeliso-8859-1 iso-8859-1ad adtypograph typographpunctuat punctuatmark markneed needtradit tradittext textprint printiso-8859-1 iso-8859-1windows-1252 windows-1252origin origin7-bit 7-bitascii asciicommon commoncharact charactencod encod2008 2008utf-8 utf-8becam becamcommon commoniso/iec iso/iec4873 4873introduc introduc32 32addit additcontrol controlcode codedefin defin80–9f 80–9fhexadecim hexadecimrang rangpart partextend extend7-bit 7-bitascii asciiencod encodbecom becom8-bit 8-bitsystem | 586 | ASCII | Computer-related introductions in 1963,Latin-script representations,ASCII,Character sets |
586-15 | ASCII
Section::::Variants and derivations.:Unicode.
Unicode and the ISO/IEC 10646 Universal Character Set (UCS) have a much wider array of characters and their various encoding forms have begun to supplant ISO/IEC 8859 and ASCII rapidly in many environments. While ASCII is limited to 128 characters, Unicode and the UCS support more characters by separating the concepts of unique identification (using natural numbers called "code points") and encoding (to 8-, 16- or 32-bit binary formats, called UTF-8, UTF-16 and UTF-32).
ASCII was incorporated into the Unicode (1991) character set as the first 128 symbols, so the 7-bit ASCII characters have the same numeric codes in both sets. This allows UTF-8 to be backward compatible with 7-bit ASCII, as a UTF-8 file containing only ASCII characters is identical to an ASCII file containing the same sequence of characters. Even more importantly, forward compatibility is ensured as software that recognizes only 7-bit ASCII characters as special and does not alter bytes with the highest bit set (as is often done to support 8-bit ASCII extensions such as ISO-8859-1) will preserve UTF-8 data unchanged.
section:variant :variantderivations. derivations.unicod unicodunicod unicodiso/iec iso/iec10646 10646univers universcharact charactset setuc ucmuch muchwider widerarray arraycharact charactvarious variousencod encodform formbegun begunsupplant supplantiso/iec iso/iec8859 8859ascii asciirapid rapidmani manienviron environascii asciilimit limit128 128charact charactunicod unicoduc ucsupport supportcharact charactsepar separconcept conceptuniqu uniquidentif identifuse usenatur naturnumber numbercall call`` ``code codepoint point'' ''encod encod8- 8-16- 16-32-bit 32-bitbinari binariformat formatcall callutf-8 utf-8utf-16 utf-16utf-32 utf-32ascii asciiincorpor incorporunicod unicod1991 1991charact charactset setfirst first128 128symbol symbol7-bit 7-bitascii asciicharact charactnumer numercode codeset setallow allowutf-8 utf-8backward backwardcompat compat7-bit 7-bitascii asciiutf-8 utf-8file filecontain containascii asciicharact charactident identascii asciifile filecontain containsequenc sequenccharact characteven evenimport importforward forwardcompat compatensur ensursoftwar softwarrecogn recogn7-bit 7-bitascii asciicharact charactspecial specialalter alterbyte bytehighest highestbit bitset setoften oftendone donesupport support8-bit 8-bitascii asciiextens extensiso-8859-1 iso-8859-1preserv preservutf-8 utf-8data dataunchang | 586 | ASCII | Computer-related introductions in 1963,Latin-script representations,ASCII,Character sets |
586-16 | ASCII
Section::::See also.
BULLET::::- 3568 ASCII, an asteroid named after the character encoding
BULLET::::- Ascii85
BULLET::::- ASCII art
BULLET::::- ASCII Ribbon Campaign
BULLET::::- Basic Latin (Unicode block) (ASCII as a subset of Unicode)
BULLET::::- Extended ASCII
BULLET::::- HTML decimal character rendering
BULLET::::- List of Unicode characters
BULLET::::- Jargon File, a glossary of computer programmer slang which includes a list of common slang names for ASCII characters
BULLET::::- List of computer character sets
BULLET::::- Alt codes
section:see :seealso alsobullet bullet:- :-3568 3568ascii asciiasteroid asteroidname namecharact charactencod encodbullet bullet:- :-ascii85 ascii85bullet bullet:- :-ascii asciiart artbullet bullet:- :-ascii asciiribbon ribboncampaign campaignbullet bullet:- :-basic basiclatin latinunicod unicodblock blockascii asciisubset subsetunicod unicodbullet bullet:- :-extend extendascii asciibullet bullet:- :-html htmldecim decimcharact charactrender renderbullet bullet:- :-list listunicod unicodcharact charactbullet bullet:- :-jargon jargonfile fileglossari glossaricomput computprogramm programmslang slanginclud includlist listcommon commonslang slangname nameascii asciicharact charactbullet bullet:- :-list listcomput computcharact charactset setbullet bullet:- :-alt altcode | 586 | ASCII | Computer-related introductions in 1963,Latin-script representations,ASCII,Character sets |
586-17 | ASCII
Section::::Further reading.
BULLET::::- from:
section:further :furtherread readbullet bullet:- | 586 | ASCII | Computer-related introductions in 1963,Latin-script representations,ASCII,Character sets |
586-18 | ASCII
Section::::External links.
BULLET::::-
section:extern :externlink linkbullet bullet:- | 586 | ASCII | Computer-related introductions in 1963,Latin-script representations,ASCII,Character sets |
157670-1 | Osterode (district)
Osterode () was a district in Lower Saxony, Germany. It was bounded by (from the southwest and clockwise) the districts of Göttingen, Northeim and Goslar, and by the state of Thuringia (districts of Nordhausen and Eichsfeld).
osteroddistrict districtlower lowersaxoni saxonigermani germanibound boundsouthwest southwestclockwis clockwisdistrict districtgöttingen göttingennortheim northeimgoslar goslarstate statethuringia thuringiadistrict districtnordhausen nordhauseneichsfeld | 157670 | Osterode (district) | Former districts of Lower Saxony |
157670-2 | Osterode (district)
Section::::History.
This part of the Harz mountains was ruled by the Welfen dynasty from the 12th century on. Osterode was the centre of the Principality of Brunswick-Grubenhagen, one of many small states within Brunswick-Lüneburg. Later this principality became part of Hanover, which in turn fell to the Kingdom of Prussia in 1866. In 1885 the Prussian administration established districts, among them Osterode.
On 1 November 2016, Osterode ceased to become a separate district and was merged with an enlarged Göttingen.
section:histori :historipart partharz harzmountain mountainrule rulewelfen welfendynasti dynasti12th 12thcenturi centuriosterod osterodcentr centrprincip principbrunswick-grubenhagen brunswick-grubenhagenone onemani manismall smallstate statewithin withinbrunswick-lüneburg brunswick-lüneburglater laterprincip principbecam becampart parthanov hanovturn turnfell fellkingdom kingdomprussia prussia1866 18661885 1885prussian prussianadministr administrestablish establishdistrict districtamong amongosterod osterod1 1novemb novemb2016 2016osterod osterodceas ceasbecom becomsepar separdistrict districtmerg mergenlarg enlarggöttingen | 157670 | Osterode (district) | Former districts of Lower Saxony |
157670-3 | Osterode (district)
Section::::Geography.
More than two thirds of the district's area were occupied by the southwestern part of the Harz mountains, including the southern portion of the Harz National Park.
section:geographi :geographitwo twothird thirddistrict district's 'sarea areaoccupi occupisouthwestern southwesternpart partharz harzmountain mountaininclud includsouthern southernportion portionharz harznation nationpark | 157670 | Osterode (district) | Former districts of Lower Saxony |
157670-4 | Osterode (district)
Section::::Towns and municipalities.
Towns:
BULLET::::1. Bad Lauterberg
BULLET::::2. Bad Sachsa
BULLET::::3. Herzberg am Harz
BULLET::::4. Osterode am Harz
Municipalities:
BULLET::::1. Bad Grund
Unincorporated area
BULLET::::- Harz (Landkreis Osterode am Harz) (267.37 km², uninhabited)
section:town :townmunicip municiptown townbullet bullet:1 :1bad badlauterberg lauterbergbullet bullet:2 :2bad badsachsa sachsabullet bullet:3 :3herzberg herzbergharz harzbullet bullet:4 :4osterod osterodharz harzmunicip municipbullet bullet:1 :1bad badgrund grundunincorpor unincorporarea areabullet bullet:- :-harz harzlandkrei landkreiosterod osterodharz harz267.37 267.37km² km²uninhabit | 157670 | Osterode (district) | Former districts of Lower Saxony |
157670-5 | Osterode (district)
Section::::See also.
BULLET::::- Metropolitan region Hannover-Braunschweig-Göttingen-Wolfsburg
section:see :seealso alsobullet bullet:- :-metropolitan metropolitanregion regionhannover-braunschweig-göttingen-wolfsburg | 157670 | Osterode (district) | Former districts of Lower Saxony |
157670-6 | Osterode (district)
Section::::External links.
BULLET::::- Local history (German)
section:extern :externlink linkbullet bullet:- :-local localhistori historigerman | 157670 | Osterode (district) | Former districts of Lower Saxony |
308-1 | Aristotle
Aristotle (; "Aristotélēs", ; 384–322 BC) was a Greek philosopher during the Classical period in Ancient Greece, the founder of the Lyceum and the Peripatetic school of philosophy and Aristotelian tradition. Along with his teacher Plato, he has been called the "Father of Western Philosophy". His writings cover many subjects – including physics, biology, zoology, metaphysics, logic, ethics, aesthetics, poetry, theatre, music, rhetoric, psychology, linguistics, economics, politics and government. Aristotle provided a complex synthesis of the various philosophies existing prior to him, and it was above all from his teachings that the West inherited its intellectual lexicon, as well as problems and methods of inquiry. As a result, his philosophy has exerted a unique influence on almost every form of knowledge in the West and it continues to be a subject of contemporary philosophical discussion.
Little is known about his life. Aristotle was born in the city of Stagira in Northern Greece. His father, Nicomachus, died when Aristotle was a child, and he was brought up by a guardian. At seventeen or eighteen years of age, he joined Plato's Academy in Athens and remained there until the age of thirty-seven (c. 347 BC). Shortly after Plato died, Aristotle left Athens and, at the request of Philip II of Macedon, tutored Alexander the Great beginning in 343 BC. He established a library in the Lyceum which helped him to produce many of his hundreds of books on papyrus scrolls. Though Aristotle wrote many elegant treatises and dialogues for publication, only around a third of his original output has survived, none of it intended for publication.
Aristotle's views on physical science profoundly shaped medieval scholarship. Their influence extended from Late Antiquity and the Early Middle Ages into the Renaissance, and were not replaced systematically until the Enlightenment and theories such as classical mechanics. Some of Aristotle's zoological observations found in his biology, such as on the hectocotyl (reproductive) arm of the octopus, were disbelieved until the 19th century. His works contain the earliest known formal study of logic, studied by medieval scholars such as Peter Abelard and John Buridan. Aristotle's influence on logic also continued well into the 19th century.
He influenced Islamic thought during the Middle Ages, as well as Christian theology, especially the Neoplatonism of the Early Church and the scholastic tradition of the Catholic Church. Aristotle was revered among medieval Muslim scholars as "The First Teacher" and among medieval Christians like Thomas Aquinas as simply "The Philosopher". His ethics, though always influential, gained renewed interest with the modern advent of virtue ethics, such as in the thinking of Alasdair MacIntyre and Philippa Foot.
aristotl`` ``aristotélē aristotélē'' ''384–322 384–322bc bcgreek greekphilosoph philosophclassic classicperiod periodancient ancientgreec greecfounder founderlyceum lyceumperipatet peripatetschool schoolphilosophi philosophiaristotelian aristoteliantradit traditalong alongteacher teacherplato platocall call`` ``father fatherwestern westernphilosophi philosophi'' ''write writecover covermani manisubject subject– –includ includphysic physicbiolog biologzoolog zoologmetaphys metaphyslogic logicethic ethicaesthet aesthetpoetri poetritheatr theatrmusic musicrhetor rhetorpsycholog psychologlinguist linguisteconom econompolit politgovern governaristotl aristotlprovid providcomplex complexsynthesi synthesivarious variousphilosophi philosophiexist existprior priorteach teachwest westinherit inheritintellectu intellectulexicon lexiconwell wellproblem problemmethod methodinquiri inquiriresult resultphilosophi philosophiexert exertuniqu uniquinfluenc influencalmost almosteveri everiform formknowledg knowledgwest westcontinu continusubject subjectcontemporari contemporariphilosoph philosophdiscuss discusslittl littlknown knownlife lifearistotl aristotlborn bornciti citistagira stagiranorthern northerngreec greecfather fathernicomachus nicomachusdie diearistotl aristotlchild childbrought broughtguardian guardianseventeen seventeeneighteen eighteenyear yearage agejoin joinplato plato's 'sacademi academiathen athenremain remainage agethirty-seven thirty-sevenc. c.347 347bc bcshort shortplato platodie diearistotl aristotlleft leftathen athenrequest requestphilip philipii iimacedon macedontutor tutoralexand alexandgreat greatbegin begin343 343bc bcestablish establishlibrari librarilyceum lyceumhelp helpproduc producmani manihundr hundrbook bookpapyrus papyrusscroll scrollthough thougharistotl aristotlwrote wrotemani manieleg elegtreatis treatisdialogu dialogupublic publicaround aroundthird thirdorigin originoutput outputsurviv survivnone noneintend intendpublic publicaristotl aristotl's 'sview viewphysic physicscienc sciencprofound profoundshape shapemediev medievscholarship scholarshipinfluenc influencextend extendlate lateantiqu antiquearli earlimiddl middlage agerenaiss renaissreplac replacsystemat systematenlighten enlightentheori theoriclassic classicmechan mechanaristotl aristotl's 'szoolog zoologobserv observfound foundbiolog biologhectocotyl hectocotylreproduct reproductarm armoctopus octopusdisbeliev disbeliev19th 19thcenturi centuriwork workcontain containearliest earliestknown knownformal formalstudi studilogic logicstudi studimediev medievscholar scholarpeter peterabelard abelardjohn johnburidan buridanaristotl aristotl's 'sinfluenc influenclogic logicalso alsocontinu continuwell well19th 19thcenturi centuriinfluenc influencislam islamthought thoughtmiddl middlage agewell wellchristian christiantheolog theologespeci especineoplaton neoplatonearli earlichurch churchscholast scholasttradit traditcathol catholchurch churcharistotl aristotlrever reveramong amongmediev medievmuslim muslimscholar scholar`` ``first firstteacher teacher'' ''among amongmediev medievchristian christianlike likethoma thomaaquina aquinasimpli simpli`` ``philosoph philosoph'' ''ethic ethicthough thoughalway alwayinfluenti influentigain gainrenew renewinterest interestmodern modernadvent adventvirtu virtuethic ethicthink thinkalasdair alasdairmacintyr macintyrphilippa philippafoot | 308 | Aristotle | Ancient Greek metaphysicians,Ancient literary critics,Ancient Greek mathematicians,Peripatetic philosophers,Ancient Greek political philosophers,Natural philosophers,Philosophers of culture,Social critics,Ancient Greek biologists,Greek male writers,Ancient Greek philosophers of mind,Aristotelianism,Metic philosophers in Classical Athens,Social commentators,Western philosophy,Political philosophers,Irony theorists,Philosophers of law,Ancient Greek ethicists,Ethicists,Metaphysicians,Epistemologists,Philosophy writers,Logicians,Philosophers of education,Virtue ethics,Philosophers of logic,Ancient Greek physicists,Ancient Greek philosophers of language,Philosophy academics,Founders of philosophical traditions,Critical thinking,Social philosophers,Moral philosophers,Virtue ethicists,Western culture,4th-century BC philosophers,Aristotle,Philosophers of ethics and morality,322 BC deaths,Humor researchers,Logic,Trope theorists,Academic philosophers,Ancient Stagirites,Philosophers and tutors of Alexander the Great,Attic Greek writers,Ancient Greek metaphilosophers,Cultural critics,Greek meteorologists,Philosophers of literature,Ancient Greek logicians,Philosophers of art,Ancient Greeks in Macedon,Philosophers of technology,Philosophers of science,4th-century BC writers,Cosmologists,Philosophers of love,384 BC births,Rhetoric theorists,Acting theorists,Virtue,Philosophical logic,Philosophers of ancient Chalcidice,Philosophers of mind,Aristotelian philosophers,Ancient Greek epistemologists,Metaphilosophers |
308-2 | Aristotle
Section::::Life.
In general, the details of Aristotle's life are not well-established. The biographies written in ancient times are often speculative and historians only agree on a few salient points.
Aristotle, whose name means "the best purpose" in Ancient Greek, was born in 384 BC in Stagira, Chalcidice, about 55 km (34 miles) east of modern-day Thessaloniki. His father Nicomachus was the personal physician to King Amyntas of Macedon. Both of Aristotle's parents died when he was about thirteen, and Proxenus of Atarneus became his guardian. Although little information about Aristotle's childhood has survived, he probably spent some time within the Macedonian palace, making his first connections with the Macedonian monarchy.
At the age of seventeen or eighteen, Aristotle moved to Athens to continue his education at Plato's Academy. He probably experienced the Eleusinian Mysteries as he wrote when describing the sights one viewed at the Eleusinian Mysteries, “to experience is to learn” [παθείν μαθεĩν]. Aristotle remained in Athens for nearly twenty years before leaving in 348/47 BC. The traditional story about his departure records that he was disappointed with the Academy's direction after control passed to Plato's nephew Speusippus, although it is possible that he feared the anti-Macedonian sentiments in Athens at that time and left before Plato died. Aristotle then accompanied Xenocrates to the court of his friend Hermias of Atarneus in Asia Minor. After the death of Hermias, Aristotle travelled with his pupil Theophrastus to the island of Lesbos, where together they researched the botany and zoology of the island and its sheltered lagoon. While in Lesbos, Aristotle married Pythias, either Hermias's adoptive daughter or niece. She bore him a daughter, whom they also named Pythias. In 343 BC, Aristotle was invited by Philip II of Macedon to become the tutor to his son Alexander.
Aristotle was appointed as the head of the royal academy of Macedon. During Aristotle's time in the Macedonian court, he gave lessons not only to Alexander, but also to two other future kings: Ptolemy and Cassander. Aristotle encouraged Alexander toward eastern conquest, and Aristotle's own attitude towards Persia was unabashedly ethnocentric. In one famous example, he counsels Alexander to be "a leader to the Greeks and a despot to the barbarians, to look after the former as after friends and relatives, and to deal with the latter as with beasts or plants". By 335 BC, Aristotle had returned to Athens, establishing his own school there known as the Lyceum. Aristotle conducted courses at the school for the next twelve years. While in Athens, his wife Pythias died and Aristotle became involved with Herpyllis of Stagira, who bore him a son whom he named after his father, Nicomachus. According to the "Suda", he also had an "erômenos", Palaephatus of Abydus.
This period in Athens, between 335 and 323 BC, is when Aristotle is believed to have composed many of his works. He wrote many dialogues, of which only fragments have survived. Those works that have survived are in treatise form and were not, for the most part, intended for widespread publication; they are generally thought to be lecture aids for his students. His most important treatises include "Physics", "Metaphysics", "Nicomachean Ethics", "Politics", "On the Soul" and "Poetics". Aristotle studied and made significant contributions to "logic, metaphysics, mathematics, physics, biology, botany, ethics, politics, agriculture, medicine, dance and theatre."
Near the end of his life, Alexander and Aristotle became estranged over Alexander's relationship with Persia and Persians. A widespread tradition in antiquity suspected Aristotle of playing a role in Alexander's death, but the only evidence of this is an unlikely claim made some six years after the death. Following Alexander's death, anti-Macedonian sentiment in Athens was rekindled. In 322 BC, Demophilus and Eurymedon the Hierophant reportedly denounced Aristotle for impiety, prompting him to flee to his mother's family estate in Chalcis, on Euboea, at which occasion he was said to have stated: "I will not allow the Athenians to sin twice against philosophy" – a reference to Athens's trial and execution of Socrates. He died on Euboea of natural causes later that same year, having named his student Antipater as his chief executor and leaving a will in which he asked to be buried next to his wife.
section:life :lifegeneral generaldetail detailaristotl aristotl's 'slife lifewell-establish well-establishbiographi biographiwritten writtenancient ancienttime timeoften oftenspecul speculhistorian historianagre agresalient salientpoint pointaristotl aristotlwhose whosename namemean mean`` ``best bestpurpos purpos'' ''ancient ancientgreek greekborn born384 384bc bcstagira stagirachalcidic chalcidic55 55km km34 34mile mileeast eastmodern-day modern-daythessaloniki thessalonikifather fathernicomachus nicomachusperson personphysician physicianking kingamynta amyntamacedon macedonaristotl aristotl's 'sparent parentdie diethirteen thirteenproxenus proxenusatarneus atarneusbecam becamguardian guardianalthough althoughlittl littlinform informaristotl aristotl's 'schildhood childhoodsurviv survivprobabl probablspent spenttime timewithin withinmacedonian macedonianpalac palacmake makefirst firstconnect connectmacedonian macedonianmonarchi monarchiage ageseventeen seventeeneighteen eighteenaristotl aristotlmove moveathen athencontinu continueduc educplato plato's 'sacademi academiprobabl probablexperienc experienceleusinian eleusinianmysteri mysteriwrote wrotedescrib describsight sightone oneview vieweleusinian eleusinianmysteri mysteri“ “experi experilearn learn” ”παθείν παθείνμαθεĩν μαθεĩνaristotl aristotlremain remainathen athennear neartwenti twentiyear yearleav leav348/47 348/47bc bctradit traditstori storidepartur departurrecord recorddisappoint disappointacademi academi's 'sdirect directcontrol controlpass passplato plato's 'snephew nephewspeusippus speusippusalthough althoughpossibl possiblfear fearanti-macedonian anti-macedoniansentiment sentimentathen athentime timeleft leftplato platodie diearistotl aristotlaccompani accompanixenocr xenocrcourt courtfriend friendhermia hermiaatarneus atarneusasia asiaminor minordeath deathhermia hermiaaristotl aristotltravel travelpupil pupiltheophrastus theophrastusisland islandlesbo lesbotogeth togethresearch researchbotani botanizoolog zoologisland islandshelter shelterlagoon lagoonlesbo lesboaristotl aristotlmarri marripythia pythiaeither eitherhermia hermia's 'sadopt adoptdaughter daughterniec niecbore boredaughter daughteralso alsoname namepythia pythia343 343bc bcaristotl aristotlinvit invitphilip philipii iimacedon macedonbecom becomtutor tutorson sonalexand alexandaristotl aristotlappoint appointhead headroyal royalacademi academimacedon macedonaristotl aristotl's 'stime timemacedonian macedoniancourt courtgave gavelesson lessonalexand alexandalso alsotwo twofutur futurking kingptolemi ptolemicassand cassandaristotl aristotlencourag encouragalexand alexandtoward towardeastern easternconquest conquestaristotl aristotl's 'sattitud attitudtoward towardpersia persiaunabash unabashethnocentr ethnocentrone onefamous famousexampl examplcounsel counselalexand alexand`` ``leader leadergreek greekdespot despotbarbarian barbarianlook lookformer formerfriend friendrelat relatdeal deallatter latterbeast beastplant plant'' ''335 335bc bcaristotl aristotlreturn returnathen athenestablish establishschool schoolknown knownlyceum lyceumaristotl aristotlconduct conductcours coursschool schoolnext nexttwelv twelvyear yearathen athenwife wifepythia pythiadie diearistotl aristotlbecam becaminvolv involvherpylli herpyllistagira stagirabore boreson sonname namefather fathernicomachus nicomachusaccord accord`` ``suda suda'' ''also also`` ``erômeno erômeno'' ''palaephatus palaephatusabydus abydusperiod periodathen athen335 335323 323bc bcaristotl aristotlbeliev believcompos composmani maniwork workwrote wrotemani manidialogu dialogufragment fragmentsurviv survivwork worksurviv survivtreatis treatisform formpart partintend intendwidespread widespreadpublic publicgeneral generalthought thoughtlectur lecturaid aidstudent studentimport importtreatis treatisinclud includ`` ``physic physic'' ''`` ``metaphys metaphys'' ''`` ``nicomachean nicomacheanethic ethic'' ''`` ``polit polit'' ''`` ``soul soul'' ''`` ``poetic poetic'' ''aristotl aristotlstudi studimade madesignific significcontribut contribut`` ``logic logicmetaphys metaphysmathemat mathematphysic physicbiolog biologbotani botaniethic ethicpolit politagricultur agriculturmedicin medicindanc danctheatr theatr'' ''near nearend endlife lifealexand alexandaristotl aristotlbecam becamestrang estrangalexand alexand's 'srelationship relationshippersia persiapersian persianwidespread widespreadtradit traditantiqu antiqususpect suspectaristotl aristotlplay playrole rolealexand alexand's 'sdeath deathevid evidunlik unlikclaim claimmade madesix sixyear yeardeath deathfollow followalexand alexand's 'sdeath deathanti-macedonian anti-macedoniansentiment sentimentathen athenrekindl rekindl322 322bc bcdemophilus demophiluseurymedon eurymedonhieroph hierophreport reportdenounc denouncaristotl aristotlimpieti impietiprompt promptflee fleemother mother's 'sfamili familiestat estatchalci chalcieuboea euboeaoccas occassaid saidstate state`` ``allow allowathenian atheniansin sintwice twicephilosophi philosophi'' ''– –refer referathen athen's 'strial trialexecut executsocrat socratdie dieeuboea euboeanatur naturcaus causlater lateryear yearname namestudent studentantipat antipatchief chiefexecutor executorleav leavask askburi burinext nextwife | 308 | Aristotle | Ancient Greek metaphysicians,Ancient literary critics,Ancient Greek mathematicians,Peripatetic philosophers,Ancient Greek political philosophers,Natural philosophers,Philosophers of culture,Social critics,Ancient Greek biologists,Greek male writers,Ancient Greek philosophers of mind,Aristotelianism,Metic philosophers in Classical Athens,Social commentators,Western philosophy,Political philosophers,Irony theorists,Philosophers of law,Ancient Greek ethicists,Ethicists,Metaphysicians,Epistemologists,Philosophy writers,Logicians,Philosophers of education,Virtue ethics,Philosophers of logic,Ancient Greek physicists,Ancient Greek philosophers of language,Philosophy academics,Founders of philosophical traditions,Critical thinking,Social philosophers,Moral philosophers,Virtue ethicists,Western culture,4th-century BC philosophers,Aristotle,Philosophers of ethics and morality,322 BC deaths,Humor researchers,Logic,Trope theorists,Academic philosophers,Ancient Stagirites,Philosophers and tutors of Alexander the Great,Attic Greek writers,Ancient Greek metaphilosophers,Cultural critics,Greek meteorologists,Philosophers of literature,Ancient Greek logicians,Philosophers of art,Ancient Greeks in Macedon,Philosophers of technology,Philosophers of science,4th-century BC writers,Cosmologists,Philosophers of love,384 BC births,Rhetoric theorists,Acting theorists,Virtue,Philosophical logic,Philosophers of ancient Chalcidice,Philosophers of mind,Aristotelian philosophers,Ancient Greek epistemologists,Metaphilosophers |
308-3 | Aristotle
Section::::Speculative philosophy.
section:specul :speculphilosophi | 308 | Aristotle | Ancient Greek metaphysicians,Ancient literary critics,Ancient Greek mathematicians,Peripatetic philosophers,Ancient Greek political philosophers,Natural philosophers,Philosophers of culture,Social critics,Ancient Greek biologists,Greek male writers,Ancient Greek philosophers of mind,Aristotelianism,Metic philosophers in Classical Athens,Social commentators,Western philosophy,Political philosophers,Irony theorists,Philosophers of law,Ancient Greek ethicists,Ethicists,Metaphysicians,Epistemologists,Philosophy writers,Logicians,Philosophers of education,Virtue ethics,Philosophers of logic,Ancient Greek physicists,Ancient Greek philosophers of language,Philosophy academics,Founders of philosophical traditions,Critical thinking,Social philosophers,Moral philosophers,Virtue ethicists,Western culture,4th-century BC philosophers,Aristotle,Philosophers of ethics and morality,322 BC deaths,Humor researchers,Logic,Trope theorists,Academic philosophers,Ancient Stagirites,Philosophers and tutors of Alexander the Great,Attic Greek writers,Ancient Greek metaphilosophers,Cultural critics,Greek meteorologists,Philosophers of literature,Ancient Greek logicians,Philosophers of art,Ancient Greeks in Macedon,Philosophers of technology,Philosophers of science,4th-century BC writers,Cosmologists,Philosophers of love,384 BC births,Rhetoric theorists,Acting theorists,Virtue,Philosophical logic,Philosophers of ancient Chalcidice,Philosophers of mind,Aristotelian philosophers,Ancient Greek epistemologists,Metaphilosophers |
308-4 | Aristotle
Section::::Speculative philosophy.:Logic.
With the "Prior Analytics", Aristotle is credited with the earliest study of formal logic, and his conception of it was the dominant form of Western logic until 19th-century advances in mathematical logic. Kant stated in the "Critique of Pure Reason" that with Aristotle logic reached its completion.
section:specul :speculphilosophy. philosophy.logic logic`` ``prior prioranalyt analyt'' ''aristotl aristotlcredit creditearliest earlieststudi studiformal formallogic logicconcept conceptdomin dominform formwestern westernlogic logic19th-centuri 19th-centuriadvanc advancmathemat mathematlogic logickant kantstate state`` ``critiqu critiqupure purereason reason'' ''aristotl aristotllogic logicreach reachcomplet | 308 | Aristotle | Ancient Greek metaphysicians,Ancient literary critics,Ancient Greek mathematicians,Peripatetic philosophers,Ancient Greek political philosophers,Natural philosophers,Philosophers of culture,Social critics,Ancient Greek biologists,Greek male writers,Ancient Greek philosophers of mind,Aristotelianism,Metic philosophers in Classical Athens,Social commentators,Western philosophy,Political philosophers,Irony theorists,Philosophers of law,Ancient Greek ethicists,Ethicists,Metaphysicians,Epistemologists,Philosophy writers,Logicians,Philosophers of education,Virtue ethics,Philosophers of logic,Ancient Greek physicists,Ancient Greek philosophers of language,Philosophy academics,Founders of philosophical traditions,Critical thinking,Social philosophers,Moral philosophers,Virtue ethicists,Western culture,4th-century BC philosophers,Aristotle,Philosophers of ethics and morality,322 BC deaths,Humor researchers,Logic,Trope theorists,Academic philosophers,Ancient Stagirites,Philosophers and tutors of Alexander the Great,Attic Greek writers,Ancient Greek metaphilosophers,Cultural critics,Greek meteorologists,Philosophers of literature,Ancient Greek logicians,Philosophers of art,Ancient Greeks in Macedon,Philosophers of technology,Philosophers of science,4th-century BC writers,Cosmologists,Philosophers of love,384 BC births,Rhetoric theorists,Acting theorists,Virtue,Philosophical logic,Philosophers of ancient Chalcidice,Philosophers of mind,Aristotelian philosophers,Ancient Greek epistemologists,Metaphilosophers |
308-5 | Aristotle
Section::::Speculative philosophy.:Logic.:"Organon".
What we today call "Aristotelian logic" with its types of syllogism (methods of logical argument), Aristotle himself would have labelled "analytics". The term "logic" he reserved to mean "dialectics". Most of Aristotle's work is probably not in its original form, because it was most likely edited by students and later lecturers. The logical works of Aristotle were compiled into a set of six books called the "Organon" around 40 BC by Andronicus of Rhodes or others among his followers. The books are:
BULLET::::1. "Categories"
BULLET::::2. "On Interpretation"
BULLET::::3. "Prior Analytics"
BULLET::::4. "Posterior Analytics"
BULLET::::5. "Topics"
BULLET::::6. "On Sophistical Refutations"
The order of the books (or the teachings from which they are composed) is not certain, but this list was derived from analysis of Aristotle's writings. It goes from the basics, the analysis of simple terms in the "Categories," the analysis of propositions and their elementary relations in "On Interpretation", to the study of more complex forms, namely, syllogisms (in the "Analytics") and dialectics (in the "Topics" and "Sophistical Refutations"). The first three treatises form the core of the logical theory "stricto sensu": the grammar of the language of logic and the correct rules of reasoning. The "Rhetoric" is not conventionally included, but it states that it relies on the "Topics".
section:specul :speculphilosophy. philosophy.logic. logic.'' ''organon organon'' ''today todaycall call`` ``aristotelian aristotelianlogic logic'' ''type typesyllog syllogmethod methodlogic logicargument argumentaristotl aristotlwould wouldlabel label`` ``analyt analyt'' ''term term`` ``logic logic'' ''reserv reservmean mean`` ``dialect dialect'' ''aristotl aristotl's 'swork workprobabl probablorigin originform formlike likeedit editstudent studentlater laterlectur lecturlogic logicwork workaristotl aristotlcompil compilset setsix sixbook bookcall call`` ``organon organon'' ''around around40 40bc bcandronicus andronicusrhode rhodeother otheramong amongfollow followbook bookbullet bullet:1 :1`` ``categori categori'' ''bullet bullet:2 :2`` ``interpret interpret'' ''bullet bullet:3 :3`` ``prior prioranalyt analyt'' ''bullet bullet:4 :4`` ``posterior posterioranalyt analyt'' ''bullet bullet:5 :5`` ``topic topic'' ''bullet bullet:6 :6`` ``sophist sophistrefut refut'' ''order orderbook bookteach teachcompos composcertain certainlist listderiv derivanalysi analysiaristotl aristotl's 'swrite writegoe goebasic basicanalysi analysisimpl simplterm term`` ``categori categori'' ''analysi analysiproposit propositelementari elementarirelat relat`` ``interpret interpret'' ''studi studicomplex complexform formname namesyllog syllog`` ``analyt analyt'' ''dialect dialect`` ``topic topic'' ''`` ``sophist sophistrefut refut'' ''first firstthree threetreatis treatisform formcore corelogic logictheori theori`` ``stricto strictosensu sensu'' ''grammar grammarlanguag languaglogic logiccorrect correctrule rulereason reason`` ``rhetor rhetor'' ''convent conventinclud includstate statereli reli`` ``topic topic'' | 308 | Aristotle | Ancient Greek metaphysicians,Ancient literary critics,Ancient Greek mathematicians,Peripatetic philosophers,Ancient Greek political philosophers,Natural philosophers,Philosophers of culture,Social critics,Ancient Greek biologists,Greek male writers,Ancient Greek philosophers of mind,Aristotelianism,Metic philosophers in Classical Athens,Social commentators,Western philosophy,Political philosophers,Irony theorists,Philosophers of law,Ancient Greek ethicists,Ethicists,Metaphysicians,Epistemologists,Philosophy writers,Logicians,Philosophers of education,Virtue ethics,Philosophers of logic,Ancient Greek physicists,Ancient Greek philosophers of language,Philosophy academics,Founders of philosophical traditions,Critical thinking,Social philosophers,Moral philosophers,Virtue ethicists,Western culture,4th-century BC philosophers,Aristotle,Philosophers of ethics and morality,322 BC deaths,Humor researchers,Logic,Trope theorists,Academic philosophers,Ancient Stagirites,Philosophers and tutors of Alexander the Great,Attic Greek writers,Ancient Greek metaphilosophers,Cultural critics,Greek meteorologists,Philosophers of literature,Ancient Greek logicians,Philosophers of art,Ancient Greeks in Macedon,Philosophers of technology,Philosophers of science,4th-century BC writers,Cosmologists,Philosophers of love,384 BC births,Rhetoric theorists,Acting theorists,Virtue,Philosophical logic,Philosophers of ancient Chalcidice,Philosophers of mind,Aristotelian philosophers,Ancient Greek epistemologists,Metaphilosophers |
308-6 | Aristotle
Section::::Speculative philosophy.:Metaphysics.
The word "metaphysics" appears to have been coined by the first century AD editor who assembled various small selections of Aristotle's works to the treatise we know by the name "Metaphysics". Aristotle called it "first philosophy", and distinguished it from mathematics and natural science (physics) as the contemplative ("theoretikē") philosophy which is "theological" and studies the divine. He wrote in his "Metaphysics" (1026a16):
section:specul :speculphilosophy. philosophy.metaphys metaphysword word`` ``metaphys metaphys'' ''appear appearcoin coinfirst firstcenturi centuriad adeditor editorassembl assemblvarious varioussmall smallselect selectaristotl aristotl's 'swork worktreatis treatisknow knowname name`` ``metaphys metaphys'' ''aristotl aristotlcall call`` ``first firstphilosophi philosophi'' ''distinguish distinguishmathemat mathematnatur naturscienc sciencphysic physiccontempl contempl`` ``theoretikē theoretikē'' ''philosophi philosophi`` ``theolog theolog'' ''studi studidivin divinwrote wrote`` ``metaphys metaphys'' ''1026a16 | 308 | Aristotle | Ancient Greek metaphysicians,Ancient literary critics,Ancient Greek mathematicians,Peripatetic philosophers,Ancient Greek political philosophers,Natural philosophers,Philosophers of culture,Social critics,Ancient Greek biologists,Greek male writers,Ancient Greek philosophers of mind,Aristotelianism,Metic philosophers in Classical Athens,Social commentators,Western philosophy,Political philosophers,Irony theorists,Philosophers of law,Ancient Greek ethicists,Ethicists,Metaphysicians,Epistemologists,Philosophy writers,Logicians,Philosophers of education,Virtue ethics,Philosophers of logic,Ancient Greek physicists,Ancient Greek philosophers of language,Philosophy academics,Founders of philosophical traditions,Critical thinking,Social philosophers,Moral philosophers,Virtue ethicists,Western culture,4th-century BC philosophers,Aristotle,Philosophers of ethics and morality,322 BC deaths,Humor researchers,Logic,Trope theorists,Academic philosophers,Ancient Stagirites,Philosophers and tutors of Alexander the Great,Attic Greek writers,Ancient Greek metaphilosophers,Cultural critics,Greek meteorologists,Philosophers of literature,Ancient Greek logicians,Philosophers of art,Ancient Greeks in Macedon,Philosophers of technology,Philosophers of science,4th-century BC writers,Cosmologists,Philosophers of love,384 BC births,Rhetoric theorists,Acting theorists,Virtue,Philosophical logic,Philosophers of ancient Chalcidice,Philosophers of mind,Aristotelian philosophers,Ancient Greek epistemologists,Metaphilosophers |
308-7 | Aristotle
Section::::Speculative philosophy.:Metaphysics.:Substance.
Aristotle examines the concepts of substance ("ousia") and essence ("to ti ên einai", "the what it was to be") in his "Metaphysics" (Book VII), and he concludes that a particular substance is a combination of both matter and form, a philosophical theory called hylomorphism. In Book VIII, he distinguishes the matter of the substance as the substratum, or the stuff of which it is composed. For example, the matter of a house is the bricks, stones, timbers etc., or whatever constitutes the "potential" house, while the form of the substance is the "actual" house, namely 'covering for bodies and chattels' or any other differentia that let us define something as a house. The formula that gives the components is the account of the matter, and the formula that gives the differentia is the account of the form.
section:specul :speculphilosophy. philosophy.metaphysics. metaphysics.substanc substancaristotl aristotlexamin examinconcept conceptsubstanc substanc`` ``ousia ousia'' ''essenc essenc`` ``ti tiên êneinai einai'' ''`` ``'' ''`` ``metaphys metaphys'' ''book bookvii viiconclud concludparticular particularsubstanc substanccombin combinmatter matterform formphilosoph philosophtheori theoricall callhylomorph hylomorphbook bookviii viiidistinguish distinguishmatter mattersubstanc substancsubstratum substratumstuff stuffcompos composexampl examplmatter matterhous housbrick brickstone stonetimber timberetc. etc.whatev whatevconstitut constitut`` ``potenti potenti'' ''hous housform formsubstanc substanc`` ``actual actual'' ''hous housname namecover coverbodi bodichattel chatteldifferentia differentialet letus usdefin definsometh somethhous housformula formulagive givecompon componaccount accountmatter matterformula formulagive givedifferentia differentiaaccount accountform | 308 | Aristotle | Ancient Greek metaphysicians,Ancient literary critics,Ancient Greek mathematicians,Peripatetic philosophers,Ancient Greek political philosophers,Natural philosophers,Philosophers of culture,Social critics,Ancient Greek biologists,Greek male writers,Ancient Greek philosophers of mind,Aristotelianism,Metic philosophers in Classical Athens,Social commentators,Western philosophy,Political philosophers,Irony theorists,Philosophers of law,Ancient Greek ethicists,Ethicists,Metaphysicians,Epistemologists,Philosophy writers,Logicians,Philosophers of education,Virtue ethics,Philosophers of logic,Ancient Greek physicists,Ancient Greek philosophers of language,Philosophy academics,Founders of philosophical traditions,Critical thinking,Social philosophers,Moral philosophers,Virtue ethicists,Western culture,4th-century BC philosophers,Aristotle,Philosophers of ethics and morality,322 BC deaths,Humor researchers,Logic,Trope theorists,Academic philosophers,Ancient Stagirites,Philosophers and tutors of Alexander the Great,Attic Greek writers,Ancient Greek metaphilosophers,Cultural critics,Greek meteorologists,Philosophers of literature,Ancient Greek logicians,Philosophers of art,Ancient Greeks in Macedon,Philosophers of technology,Philosophers of science,4th-century BC writers,Cosmologists,Philosophers of love,384 BC births,Rhetoric theorists,Acting theorists,Virtue,Philosophical logic,Philosophers of ancient Chalcidice,Philosophers of mind,Aristotelian philosophers,Ancient Greek epistemologists,Metaphilosophers |
308-8 | Aristotle
Section::::Speculative philosophy.:Metaphysics.:Substance.:Immanent realism.
Like his teacher Plato, Aristotle's philosophy aims at the universal. Aristotle's ontology places the universal ("katholou") in particulars ("kath' hekaston"), things in the world, whereas for Plato the universal is a separately existing form which actual things imitate. For Aristotle, "form" is still what phenomena are based on, but is "instantiated" in a particular substance.
Plato argued that all things have a universal form, which could be either a property or a relation to other things. When we look at an apple, for example, we see an apple, and we can also analyse a form of an apple. In this distinction, there is a particular apple and a universal form of an apple. Moreover, we can place an apple next to a book, so that we can speak of both the book and apple as being next to each other. Plato argued that there are some universal forms that are not a part of particular things. For example, it is possible that there is no particular good in existence, but "good" is still a proper universal form. Aristotle disagreed with Plato on this point, arguing that all universals are instantiated at some period of time, and that there are no universals that are unattached to existing things. In addition, Aristotle disagreed with Plato about the location of universals. Where Plato spoke of the world of forms, a place where all universal forms subsist, Aristotle maintained that universals exist within each thing on which each universal is predicated. So, according to Aristotle, the form of apple exists within each apple, rather than in the world of the forms.
section:specul :speculphilosophy. philosophy.metaphysics. metaphysics.substanc substancimman immanrealism realismlike liketeacher teacherplato platoaristotl aristotl's 'sphilosophi philosophiaim aimunivers universaristotl aristotl's 'sontolog ontologplace placeunivers univers`` ``katholou katholou'' ''particular particular`` ``kath kathhekaston hekaston'' ''thing thingworld worldwherea whereaplato platounivers universsepar separexist existform formactual actualthing thingimit imitaristotl aristotl`` ``form form'' ''still stillphenomena phenomenabase base`` ``instanti instanti'' ''particular particularsubstanc substancplato platoargu arguthing thingunivers universform formcould couldeither eitherproperti propertirelat relatthing thinglook lookappl applexampl examplsee seeappl applalso alsoanalys analysform formappl appldistinct distinctparticular particularappl applunivers universform formappl applmoreov moreovplace placeappl applnext nextbook bookspeak speakbook bookappl applnext nextplato platoargu arguunivers universform formpart partparticular particularthing thingexampl examplpossibl possiblparticular particulargood goodexist exist`` ``good good'' ''still stillproper properunivers universform formaristotl aristotldisagre disagreplato platopoint pointargu arguunivers universinstanti instantiperiod periodtime timeunivers universunattach unattachexist existthing thingaddit additaristotl aristotldisagre disagreplato platolocat locatunivers universplato platospoke spokeworld worldform formplace placeunivers universform formsubsist subsistaristotl aristotlmaintain maintainunivers universexist existwithin withinthing thingunivers universpredic predicaccord accordaristotl aristotlform formappl applexist existwithin withinappl applrather ratherworld worldform | 308 | Aristotle | Ancient Greek metaphysicians,Ancient literary critics,Ancient Greek mathematicians,Peripatetic philosophers,Ancient Greek political philosophers,Natural philosophers,Philosophers of culture,Social critics,Ancient Greek biologists,Greek male writers,Ancient Greek philosophers of mind,Aristotelianism,Metic philosophers in Classical Athens,Social commentators,Western philosophy,Political philosophers,Irony theorists,Philosophers of law,Ancient Greek ethicists,Ethicists,Metaphysicians,Epistemologists,Philosophy writers,Logicians,Philosophers of education,Virtue ethics,Philosophers of logic,Ancient Greek physicists,Ancient Greek philosophers of language,Philosophy academics,Founders of philosophical traditions,Critical thinking,Social philosophers,Moral philosophers,Virtue ethicists,Western culture,4th-century BC philosophers,Aristotle,Philosophers of ethics and morality,322 BC deaths,Humor researchers,Logic,Trope theorists,Academic philosophers,Ancient Stagirites,Philosophers and tutors of Alexander the Great,Attic Greek writers,Ancient Greek metaphilosophers,Cultural critics,Greek meteorologists,Philosophers of literature,Ancient Greek logicians,Philosophers of art,Ancient Greeks in Macedon,Philosophers of technology,Philosophers of science,4th-century BC writers,Cosmologists,Philosophers of love,384 BC births,Rhetoric theorists,Acting theorists,Virtue,Philosophical logic,Philosophers of ancient Chalcidice,Philosophers of mind,Aristotelian philosophers,Ancient Greek epistemologists,Metaphilosophers |
308-9 | Aristotle
Section::::Speculative philosophy.:Metaphysics.:Substance.:Potentiality and actuality.
With regard to the change ("kinesis") and its causes now, as he defines in his "Physics" and "On Generation and Corruption" 319b–320a, he distinguishes the coming to be from:
BULLET::::1. growth and diminution, which is change in quantity;
BULLET::::2. locomotion, which is change in space; and
BULLET::::3. alteration, which is change in quality.
The coming to be is a change where nothing persists of which the resultant is a property. In that particular change he introduces the concept of potentiality ("dynamis") and actuality ("entelecheia") in association with the matter and the form. Referring to potentiality, this is what a thing is capable of doing, or being acted upon, if the conditions are right and it is not prevented by something else. For example, the seed of a plant in the soil is potentially ("dynamei") plant, and if it is not prevented by something, it will become a plant. Potentially beings can either 'act' ("poiein") or 'be acted upon' ("paschein"), which can be either innate or learned. For example, the eyes possess the potentiality of sight (innate – being acted upon), while the capability of playing the flute can be possessed by learning (exercise – acting). Actuality is the fulfilment of the end of the potentiality. Because the end ("telos") is the principle of every change, and for the sake of the end exists potentiality, therefore actuality is the end. Referring then to our previous example, we could say that an actuality is when a plant does one of the activities that plants do.
In summary, the matter used to make a house has potentiality to be a house and both the activity of building and the form of the final house are actualities, which is also a final cause or end. Then Aristotle proceeds and concludes that the actuality is prior to potentiality in formula, in time and in substantiality. With this definition of the particular substance (i.e., matter and form), Aristotle tries to solve the problem of the unity of the beings, for example, "what is it that makes a man one"? Since, according to Plato there are two Ideas: animal and biped, how then is man a unity? However, according to Aristotle, the potential being (matter) and the actual one (form) are one and the same.
section:specul :speculphilosophy. philosophy.metaphysics. metaphysics.substanc substancpotenti potentiactual actualregard regardchang chang`` ``kinesi kinesi'' ''caus causdefin defin`` ``physic physic'' ''`` ``generat generatcorrupt corrupt'' ''319b–320a 319b–320adistinguish distinguishcome comebullet bullet:1. :1.growth growthdiminut diminutchang changquantiti quantitibullet bullet:2. :2.locomot locomotchang changspace spacebullet bullet:3. :3.alter alterchang changqualiti qualiticome comechang changnoth nothpersist persistresult resultproperti propertiparticular particularchang changintroduc introducconcept conceptpotenti potenti`` ``dynami dynami'' ''actual actual`` ``entelecheia entelecheia'' ''associ associmatter matterform formrefer referpotenti potentithing thingcapabl capablact actupon uponcondit conditright rightprevent preventsometh somethels elsexampl examplseed seedplant plantsoil soilpotenti potenti`` ``dynamei dynamei'' ''plant plantprevent preventsometh somethbecom becomplant plantpotenti potentibe beeither eitheract act`` ``poiein poiein'' ''be beact actupon upon`` ``paschein paschein'' ''either eitherinnat innatlearn learnexampl exampleye eyepossess possesspotenti potentisight sightinnat innat– –act actupon uponcapabl capablplay playflute flutepossess possesslearn learnexercis exercis– –act actactual actualfulfil fulfilend endpotenti potentiend end`` ``telo telo'' ''principl principleveri everichang changsake sakeend endexist existpotenti potentitherefor thereforactual actualend endrefer referprevious previousexampl examplcould couldsay sayactual actualplant plantone oneactiv activplant plantsummari summarimatter matteruse usemake makehous houspotenti potentihous housactiv activbuild buildform formfinal finalhous housactual actualalso alsofinal finalcaus causend endaristotl aristotlproceed proceedconclud concludactual actualprior priorpotenti potentiformula formulatime timesubstanti substantidefinit definitparticular particularsubstanc substanci.e. i.e.matter matterform formaristotl aristotltri trisolv solvproblem problemuniti unitibe beexampl exampl`` ``make makeman manone one'' ''sinc sincaccord accordplato platotwo twoidea ideaanim animbipe bipeman manuniti unitihowev howevaccord accordaristotl aristotlpotenti potentimatter matteractual actualone oneform formone | 308 | Aristotle | Ancient Greek metaphysicians,Ancient literary critics,Ancient Greek mathematicians,Peripatetic philosophers,Ancient Greek political philosophers,Natural philosophers,Philosophers of culture,Social critics,Ancient Greek biologists,Greek male writers,Ancient Greek philosophers of mind,Aristotelianism,Metic philosophers in Classical Athens,Social commentators,Western philosophy,Political philosophers,Irony theorists,Philosophers of law,Ancient Greek ethicists,Ethicists,Metaphysicians,Epistemologists,Philosophy writers,Logicians,Philosophers of education,Virtue ethics,Philosophers of logic,Ancient Greek physicists,Ancient Greek philosophers of language,Philosophy academics,Founders of philosophical traditions,Critical thinking,Social philosophers,Moral philosophers,Virtue ethicists,Western culture,4th-century BC philosophers,Aristotle,Philosophers of ethics and morality,322 BC deaths,Humor researchers,Logic,Trope theorists,Academic philosophers,Ancient Stagirites,Philosophers and tutors of Alexander the Great,Attic Greek writers,Ancient Greek metaphilosophers,Cultural critics,Greek meteorologists,Philosophers of literature,Ancient Greek logicians,Philosophers of art,Ancient Greeks in Macedon,Philosophers of technology,Philosophers of science,4th-century BC writers,Cosmologists,Philosophers of love,384 BC births,Rhetoric theorists,Acting theorists,Virtue,Philosophical logic,Philosophers of ancient Chalcidice,Philosophers of mind,Aristotelian philosophers,Ancient Greek epistemologists,Metaphilosophers |
308-10 | Aristotle
Section::::Speculative philosophy.:Epistemology.
Aristotle's immanent realism means his epistemology is based on the study of things that exist or happen in the world, and rises to knowledge of the universal, whereas for Plato epistemology begins with knowledge of universal Forms (or ideas) and descends to knowledge of particular imitations of these. Aristotle uses induction from examples alongside deduction, whereas Plato relies on deduction from "a priori" principles.
section:specul :speculphilosophy. philosophy.epistemolog epistemologaristotl aristotl's 'simman immanrealism realismmean meanepistemolog epistemologbase basestudi studithing thingexist existhappen happenworld worldrise riseknowledg knowledgunivers universwherea whereaplato platoepistemolog epistemologbegin beginknowledg knowledgunivers universform formidea ideadescend descendknowledg knowledgparticular particularimit imitaristotl aristotluse useinduct inductexampl examplalongsid alongsiddeduct deductwherea whereaplato platoreli relideduct deduct`` ``priori priori'' ''principl | 308 | Aristotle | Ancient Greek metaphysicians,Ancient literary critics,Ancient Greek mathematicians,Peripatetic philosophers,Ancient Greek political philosophers,Natural philosophers,Philosophers of culture,Social critics,Ancient Greek biologists,Greek male writers,Ancient Greek philosophers of mind,Aristotelianism,Metic philosophers in Classical Athens,Social commentators,Western philosophy,Political philosophers,Irony theorists,Philosophers of law,Ancient Greek ethicists,Ethicists,Metaphysicians,Epistemologists,Philosophy writers,Logicians,Philosophers of education,Virtue ethics,Philosophers of logic,Ancient Greek physicists,Ancient Greek philosophers of language,Philosophy academics,Founders of philosophical traditions,Critical thinking,Social philosophers,Moral philosophers,Virtue ethicists,Western culture,4th-century BC philosophers,Aristotle,Philosophers of ethics and morality,322 BC deaths,Humor researchers,Logic,Trope theorists,Academic philosophers,Ancient Stagirites,Philosophers and tutors of Alexander the Great,Attic Greek writers,Ancient Greek metaphilosophers,Cultural critics,Greek meteorologists,Philosophers of literature,Ancient Greek logicians,Philosophers of art,Ancient Greeks in Macedon,Philosophers of technology,Philosophers of science,4th-century BC writers,Cosmologists,Philosophers of love,384 BC births,Rhetoric theorists,Acting theorists,Virtue,Philosophical logic,Philosophers of ancient Chalcidice,Philosophers of mind,Aristotelian philosophers,Ancient Greek epistemologists,Metaphilosophers |
308-11 | Aristotle
Section::::Natural philosophy.
Aristotle's "natural philosophy" spans a wide range of natural phenomena including those now covered by physics, biology and other natural sciences. In Aristotle's terminology, "natural philosophy" is a branch of philosophy examining the phenomena of the natural world, and includes fields that would be regarded today as physics, biology and other natural sciences. Aristotle's work encompassed virtually all facets of intellectual inquiry. Aristotle makes philosophy in the broad sense coextensive with reasoning, which he also would describe as "science". Note, however, that his use of the term "science" carries a different meaning than that covered by the term "scientific method". For Aristotle, "all science ("dianoia") is either practical, poetical or theoretical" ("Metaphysics" 1025b25). His practical science includes ethics and politics; his poetical science means the study of fine arts including poetry; his theoretical science covers physics, mathematics and metaphysics.
section:natur :naturphilosophi philosophiaristotl aristotl's 's`` ``natur naturphilosophi philosophi'' ''span spanwide widerang rangnatur naturphenomena phenomenainclud includcover coverphysic physicbiolog biolognatur naturscienc sciencaristotl aristotl's 'sterminolog terminolog`` ``natur naturphilosophi philosophi'' ''branch branchphilosophi philosophiexamin examinphenomena phenomenanatur naturworld worldinclud includfield fieldwould wouldregard regardtoday todayphysic physicbiolog biolognatur naturscienc sciencaristotl aristotl's 'swork workencompass encompassvirtual virtualfacet facetintellectu intellectuinquiri inquiriaristotl aristotlmake makephilosophi philosophibroad broadsens senscoextens coextensreason reasonalso alsowould woulddescrib describ`` ``scienc scienc'' ''note notehowev howevuse useterm term`` ``scienc scienc'' ''carri carridiffer differmean meancover coverterm term`` ``scientif scientifmethod method'' ''aristotl aristotl`` ``scienc scienc`` ``dianoia dianoia'' ''either eitherpractic practicpoetic poetictheoret theoret'' ''`` ``metaphys metaphys'' ''1025b25 1025b25practic practicscienc sciencinclud includethic ethicpolit politpoetic poeticscienc sciencmean meanstudi studifine fineart artinclud includpoetri poetritheoret theoretscienc scienccover coverphysic physicmathemat mathematmetaphys | 308 | Aristotle | Ancient Greek metaphysicians,Ancient literary critics,Ancient Greek mathematicians,Peripatetic philosophers,Ancient Greek political philosophers,Natural philosophers,Philosophers of culture,Social critics,Ancient Greek biologists,Greek male writers,Ancient Greek philosophers of mind,Aristotelianism,Metic philosophers in Classical Athens,Social commentators,Western philosophy,Political philosophers,Irony theorists,Philosophers of law,Ancient Greek ethicists,Ethicists,Metaphysicians,Epistemologists,Philosophy writers,Logicians,Philosophers of education,Virtue ethics,Philosophers of logic,Ancient Greek physicists,Ancient Greek philosophers of language,Philosophy academics,Founders of philosophical traditions,Critical thinking,Social philosophers,Moral philosophers,Virtue ethicists,Western culture,4th-century BC philosophers,Aristotle,Philosophers of ethics and morality,322 BC deaths,Humor researchers,Logic,Trope theorists,Academic philosophers,Ancient Stagirites,Philosophers and tutors of Alexander the Great,Attic Greek writers,Ancient Greek metaphilosophers,Cultural critics,Greek meteorologists,Philosophers of literature,Ancient Greek logicians,Philosophers of art,Ancient Greeks in Macedon,Philosophers of technology,Philosophers of science,4th-century BC writers,Cosmologists,Philosophers of love,384 BC births,Rhetoric theorists,Acting theorists,Virtue,Philosophical logic,Philosophers of ancient Chalcidice,Philosophers of mind,Aristotelian philosophers,Ancient Greek epistemologists,Metaphilosophers |
308-12 | Aristotle
Section::::Natural philosophy.:Physics.
section:natur :naturphilosophi philosophiphysic | 308 | Aristotle | Ancient Greek metaphysicians,Ancient literary critics,Ancient Greek mathematicians,Peripatetic philosophers,Ancient Greek political philosophers,Natural philosophers,Philosophers of culture,Social critics,Ancient Greek biologists,Greek male writers,Ancient Greek philosophers of mind,Aristotelianism,Metic philosophers in Classical Athens,Social commentators,Western philosophy,Political philosophers,Irony theorists,Philosophers of law,Ancient Greek ethicists,Ethicists,Metaphysicians,Epistemologists,Philosophy writers,Logicians,Philosophers of education,Virtue ethics,Philosophers of logic,Ancient Greek physicists,Ancient Greek philosophers of language,Philosophy academics,Founders of philosophical traditions,Critical thinking,Social philosophers,Moral philosophers,Virtue ethicists,Western culture,4th-century BC philosophers,Aristotle,Philosophers of ethics and morality,322 BC deaths,Humor researchers,Logic,Trope theorists,Academic philosophers,Ancient Stagirites,Philosophers and tutors of Alexander the Great,Attic Greek writers,Ancient Greek metaphilosophers,Cultural critics,Greek meteorologists,Philosophers of literature,Ancient Greek logicians,Philosophers of art,Ancient Greeks in Macedon,Philosophers of technology,Philosophers of science,4th-century BC writers,Cosmologists,Philosophers of love,384 BC births,Rhetoric theorists,Acting theorists,Virtue,Philosophical logic,Philosophers of ancient Chalcidice,Philosophers of mind,Aristotelian philosophers,Ancient Greek epistemologists,Metaphilosophers |
308-13 | Aristotle
Section::::Natural philosophy.:Physics.:Five elements.
In his "On Generation and Corruption", Aristotle related each of the four elements proposed earlier by Empedocles, Earth, Water, Air, and Fire, to two of the four sensible qualities, hot, cold, wet, and dry. In the Empedoclean scheme, all matter was made of the four elements, in differing proportions. Aristotle's scheme added the heavenly Aether, the divine substance of the heavenly spheres, stars and planets.
section:natur :naturphilosophy. philosophy.physic physicfive fiveelement element`` ``generat generatcorrupt corrupt'' ''aristotl aristotlrelat relatfour fourelement elementpropos proposearlier earlierempedocl empedoclearth earthwater waterair airfire firetwo twofour foursensibl sensiblqualiti qualitihot hotcold coldwet wetdri driempedoclean empedocleanscheme schemematter mattermade madefour fourelement elementdiffer differproport proportaristotl aristotl's 'sscheme schemead adheaven heavenaether aetherdivin divinsubstanc substancheaven heavensphere spherestar starplanet | 308 | Aristotle | Ancient Greek metaphysicians,Ancient literary critics,Ancient Greek mathematicians,Peripatetic philosophers,Ancient Greek political philosophers,Natural philosophers,Philosophers of culture,Social critics,Ancient Greek biologists,Greek male writers,Ancient Greek philosophers of mind,Aristotelianism,Metic philosophers in Classical Athens,Social commentators,Western philosophy,Political philosophers,Irony theorists,Philosophers of law,Ancient Greek ethicists,Ethicists,Metaphysicians,Epistemologists,Philosophy writers,Logicians,Philosophers of education,Virtue ethics,Philosophers of logic,Ancient Greek physicists,Ancient Greek philosophers of language,Philosophy academics,Founders of philosophical traditions,Critical thinking,Social philosophers,Moral philosophers,Virtue ethicists,Western culture,4th-century BC philosophers,Aristotle,Philosophers of ethics and morality,322 BC deaths,Humor researchers,Logic,Trope theorists,Academic philosophers,Ancient Stagirites,Philosophers and tutors of Alexander the Great,Attic Greek writers,Ancient Greek metaphilosophers,Cultural critics,Greek meteorologists,Philosophers of literature,Ancient Greek logicians,Philosophers of art,Ancient Greeks in Macedon,Philosophers of technology,Philosophers of science,4th-century BC writers,Cosmologists,Philosophers of love,384 BC births,Rhetoric theorists,Acting theorists,Virtue,Philosophical logic,Philosophers of ancient Chalcidice,Philosophers of mind,Aristotelian philosophers,Ancient Greek epistemologists,Metaphilosophers |
308-14 | Aristotle
Section::::Natural philosophy.:Physics.:Motion.
Aristotle describes two kinds of motion: "violent" or "unnatural motion", such as that of a thrown stone, in the "Physics" (254b10), and "natural motion", such as of a falling object, in "On the Heavens" (300a20). In violent motion, as soon as the agent stops causing it, the motion stops also; in other words, the natural state of an object is to be at rest, since Aristotle does not address friction. With this understanding, it can be observed that, as Aristotle stated, heavy objects (on the ground, say) require more force to make them move; and objects pushed with greater force move faster. This would imply the equation
incorrect in modern physics.
Natural motion depends on the element concerned: the aether naturally moves in a circle around the heavens, while the 4 Empedoclean elements move vertically up (like fire, as is observed) or down (like earth) towards their natural resting places.
In the "Physics" (215a25), Aristotle effectively states a quantitative law, that the speed, v, of a falling body is proportional (say, with constant c) to its weight, W, and inversely proportional to the density, ρ, of the fluid in which it is falling:
Aristotle implies that in a vacuum the speed of fall would become infinite, and concludes from this apparent absurdity that a vacuum is not possible. Opinions have varied on whether Aristotle intended to state quantitative laws. Henri Carteron held the "extreme view" that Aristotle's concept of force was basically qualitative, but other authors reject this.
Archimedes corrected Aristotle's theory that bodies move towards their natural resting places; metal boats can float if they displace enough water; floating depends in Archimedes' scheme on the mass and volume of the object, not as Aristotle thought its elementary composition.
Aristotle's writings on motion remained influential until the Early Modern period. John Philoponus (in the Middle Ages) and Galileo are said to have shown by experiment that Aristotle's claim that a heavier object falls faster than a lighter object is incorrect. A contrary opinion is given by Carlo Rovelli, who argues that Aristotle's physics of motion is correct within its domain of validity, that of objects in the Earth's gravitational field immersed in a fluid such as air. In this system, heavy bodies in steady fall indeed travel faster than light ones (whether friction is ignored, or not), and they do fall more slowly in a denser medium.
Newton's "forced" motion corresponds to Aristotle's "violent" motion with its external agent, but Aristotle's assumption that the agent's effect stops immediately it stops acting (e.g., the ball leaves the thrower's hand) has awkward consequences: he has to suppose that surrounding fluid helps to push the ball along to make it continue to rise even though the hand is no longer acting on it, resulting in the Medieval theory of impetus.
section:natur :naturphilosophy. philosophy.physics. physics.motion motionaristotl aristotldescrib describtwo twokind kindmotion motion`` ``violent violent'' ''`` ``unnatur unnaturmotion motion'' ''thrown thrownstone stone`` ``physic physic'' ''254b10 254b10`` ``natur naturmotion motion'' ''fall fallobject object`` ``heaven heaven'' ''300a20 300a20violent violentmotion motionsoon soonagent agentstop stopcaus causmotion motionstop stopalso alsoword wordnatur naturstate stateobject objectrest restsinc sincaristotl aristotladdress addressfriction frictionunderstand understandobserv observaristotl aristotlstate stateheavi heaviobject objectground groundsay sayrequir requirforc forcmake makemove moveobject objectpush pushgreater greaterforc forcmove movefaster fasterwould wouldimpli impliequat equatincorrect incorrectmodern modernphysic physicnatur naturmotion motiondepend dependelement elementconcern concernaether aethernatur naturmove movecircl circlaround aroundheaven heaven4 4empedoclean empedocleanelement elementmove movevertic verticlike likefire fireobserv observlike likeearth earthtoward towardnatur naturrest restplace place`` ``physic physic'' ''215a25 215a25aristotl aristotleffect effectstate statequantit quantitlaw lawspeed speedv vfall fallbodi bodiproport proportsay sayconstant constantc cweight weightw winvers inversproport proportdensiti densitiρ ρfluid fluidfall fallaristotl aristotlimpli implivacuum vacuumspeed speedfall fallwould wouldbecom becominfinit infinitconclud concludappar apparabsurd absurdvacuum vacuumpossibl possiblopinion opinionvari variwhether whetheraristotl aristotlintend intendstate statequantit quantitlaw lawhenri henricarteron carteronheld held`` ``extrem extremview view'' ''aristotl aristotl's 'sconcept conceptforc forcbasic basicqualit qualitauthor authorreject rejectarchimed archimedcorrect correctaristotl aristotl's 'stheori theoribodi bodimove movetoward towardnatur naturrest restplace placemetal metalboat boatfloat floatdisplac displacenough enoughwater waterfloat floatdepend dependarchimed archimedscheme schememass massvolum volumobject objectaristotl aristotlthought thoughtelementari elementaricomposit compositaristotl aristotl's 'swrite writemotion motionremain remaininfluenti influentiearli earlimodern modernperiod periodjohn johnphiloponus philoponusmiddl middlage agegalileo galileosaid saidshown shownexperi experiaristotl aristotl's 'sclaim claimheavier heavierobject objectfall fallfaster fasterlighter lighterobject objectincorrect incorrectcontrari contrariopinion opiniongiven givencarlo carlorovelli rovelliargu arguaristotl aristotl's 'sphysic physicmotion motioncorrect correctwithin withindomain domainvalid validobject objectearth earth's 'sgravit gravitfield fieldimmers immersfluid fluidair airsystem systemheavi heavibodi bodisteadi steadifall fallinde indetravel travelfaster fasterlight lightone onewhether whetherfriction frictionignor ignorfall fallslowli slowlidenser densermedium mediumnewton newton's 's`` ``forc forc'' ''motion motioncorrespond correspondaristotl aristotl's 's`` ``violent violent'' ''motion motionextern externagent agentaristotl aristotl's 'sassumpt assumptagent agent's 'seffect effectstop stopimmedi immedistop stopact acte.g. e.g.ball ballleav leavthrower thrower's 'shand handawkward awkwardconsequ consequsuppos suppossurround surroundfluid fluidhelp helppush pushball ballalong alongmake makecontinu continurise riseeven eventhough thoughhand handlonger longeract actresult resultmediev medievtheori theoriimpetus | 308 | Aristotle | Ancient Greek metaphysicians,Ancient literary critics,Ancient Greek mathematicians,Peripatetic philosophers,Ancient Greek political philosophers,Natural philosophers,Philosophers of culture,Social critics,Ancient Greek biologists,Greek male writers,Ancient Greek philosophers of mind,Aristotelianism,Metic philosophers in Classical Athens,Social commentators,Western philosophy,Political philosophers,Irony theorists,Philosophers of law,Ancient Greek ethicists,Ethicists,Metaphysicians,Epistemologists,Philosophy writers,Logicians,Philosophers of education,Virtue ethics,Philosophers of logic,Ancient Greek physicists,Ancient Greek philosophers of language,Philosophy academics,Founders of philosophical traditions,Critical thinking,Social philosophers,Moral philosophers,Virtue ethicists,Western culture,4th-century BC philosophers,Aristotle,Philosophers of ethics and morality,322 BC deaths,Humor researchers,Logic,Trope theorists,Academic philosophers,Ancient Stagirites,Philosophers and tutors of Alexander the Great,Attic Greek writers,Ancient Greek metaphilosophers,Cultural critics,Greek meteorologists,Philosophers of literature,Ancient Greek logicians,Philosophers of art,Ancient Greeks in Macedon,Philosophers of technology,Philosophers of science,4th-century BC writers,Cosmologists,Philosophers of love,384 BC births,Rhetoric theorists,Acting theorists,Virtue,Philosophical logic,Philosophers of ancient Chalcidice,Philosophers of mind,Aristotelian philosophers,Ancient Greek epistemologists,Metaphilosophers |
308-15 | Aristotle
Section::::Natural philosophy.:Physics.:Four causes.
Aristotle suggested that the reason for anything coming about can be attributed to four different types of simultaneously active factors. His term "aitia" is traditionally translated as "cause", but it does not always refer to temporal sequence; it might be better translated as "explanation", but the traditional rendering will be employed here.
BULLET::::- Material cause describes the material out of which something is composed. Thus the material cause of a table is wood. It is not about action. It does not mean that one domino knocks over another domino.
BULLET::::- The formal cause is its form, i.e., the arrangement of that matter. It tells us what a thing is, that a thing is determined by the definition, form, pattern, essence, whole, synthesis or archetype. It embraces the account of causes in terms of fundamental principles or general laws, as the whole (i.e., macrostructure) is the cause of its parts, a relationship known as the whole-part causation. Plainly put, the formal cause is the idea in the mind of the sculptor that brings the sculpture into being. A simple example of the formal cause is the mental image or idea that allows an artist, architect, or engineer to create a drawing.
BULLET::::- The efficient cause is "the primary source", or that from which the change under consideration proceeds. It identifies 'what makes of what is made and what causes change of what is changed' and so suggests all sorts of agents, nonliving or living, acting as the sources of change or movement or rest. Representing the current understanding of causality as the relation of cause and effect, this covers the modern definitions of "cause" as either the agent or agency or particular events or states of affairs. In the case of two dominoes, when the first is knocked over it causes the second also to fall over. In the case of animals, this agency is a combination of how it develops from the egg, and how its body functions.
BULLET::::- The final cause ("telos") is its purpose, the reason why a thing exists or is done, including both purposeful and instrumental actions and activities. The final cause is the purpose or function that something is supposed to serve. This covers modern ideas of motivating causes, such as volition. In the case of living things, it implies adaptation to a particular way of life.
section:natur :naturphilosophy. philosophy.physic physicfour fourcaus causaristotl aristotlsuggest suggestreason reasonanyth anythcome comeattribut attributfour fourdiffer differtype typesimultan simultanactiv activfactor factorterm term`` ``aitia aitia'' ''tradit tradittranslat translat`` ``caus caus'' ''alway alwayrefer refertempor temporsequenc sequencmight mightbetter bettertranslat translat`` ``explan explan'' ''tradit traditrender renderemploy employbullet bullet:- :-materi matericaus causdescrib describmateri materisometh somethcompos composthus thusmateri matericaus caustabl tablwood woodaction actionmean meanone onedomino dominoknock knockanoth anothdomino dominobullet bullet:- :-formal formalcaus causform formi.e. i.e.arrang arrangmatter mattertell tellus usthing thingthing thingdetermin determindefinit definitform formpattern patternessenc essencwhole wholesynthesi synthesiarchetyp archetypembrac embracaccount accountcaus causterm termfundament fundamentprincipl principlgeneral generallaw lawwhole wholei.e. i.e.macrostructur macrostructurcaus causpart partrelationship relationshipknown knownwhole-part whole-partcausat causatplain plainput putformal formalcaus causidea ideamind mindsculptor sculptorbring bringsculptur sculptursimpl simplexampl examplformal formalcaus causmental mentalimag imagidea ideaallow allowartist artistarchitect architectengin engincreat creatdraw drawbullet bullet:- :-effici efficicaus caus`` ``primari primarisourc sourc'' ''chang changconsider considerproceed proceedidentifi identifiwhat whatmake makemade madecaus causchang changchang changsuggest suggestsort sortagent agentnonliv nonlivlive liveact actsourc sourcchang changmovement movementrest restrepres represcurrent currentunderstand understandcausal causalrelat relatcaus causeffect effectcover covermodern moderndefinit definit`` ``caus caus'' ''either eitheragent agentagenc agencparticular particularevent eventstate stateaffair affaircase casetwo twodomino dominofirst firstknock knockcaus caussecond secondalso alsofall fallcase caseanim animagenc agenccombin combindevelop developegg eggbodi bodifunction functionbullet bullet:- :-final finalcaus caus`` ``telo telo'' ''purpos purposreason reasonthing thingexist existdone doneinclud includpurpos purposinstrument instrumentaction actionactiv activfinal finalcaus causpurpos purposfunction functionsometh somethsuppos supposserv servcover covermodern modernidea ideamotiv motivcaus causvolit volitcase caselive livething thingimpli impliadapt adaptparticular particularway waylife | 308 | Aristotle | Ancient Greek metaphysicians,Ancient literary critics,Ancient Greek mathematicians,Peripatetic philosophers,Ancient Greek political philosophers,Natural philosophers,Philosophers of culture,Social critics,Ancient Greek biologists,Greek male writers,Ancient Greek philosophers of mind,Aristotelianism,Metic philosophers in Classical Athens,Social commentators,Western philosophy,Political philosophers,Irony theorists,Philosophers of law,Ancient Greek ethicists,Ethicists,Metaphysicians,Epistemologists,Philosophy writers,Logicians,Philosophers of education,Virtue ethics,Philosophers of logic,Ancient Greek physicists,Ancient Greek philosophers of language,Philosophy academics,Founders of philosophical traditions,Critical thinking,Social philosophers,Moral philosophers,Virtue ethicists,Western culture,4th-century BC philosophers,Aristotle,Philosophers of ethics and morality,322 BC deaths,Humor researchers,Logic,Trope theorists,Academic philosophers,Ancient Stagirites,Philosophers and tutors of Alexander the Great,Attic Greek writers,Ancient Greek metaphilosophers,Cultural critics,Greek meteorologists,Philosophers of literature,Ancient Greek logicians,Philosophers of art,Ancient Greeks in Macedon,Philosophers of technology,Philosophers of science,4th-century BC writers,Cosmologists,Philosophers of love,384 BC births,Rhetoric theorists,Acting theorists,Virtue,Philosophical logic,Philosophers of ancient Chalcidice,Philosophers of mind,Aristotelian philosophers,Ancient Greek epistemologists,Metaphilosophers |
308-16 | Aristotle
Section::::Natural philosophy.:Physics.:Optics.
Aristotle describes experiments in optics using a camera obscura in "Problems", book 15. The apparatus consisted of a dark chamber with a small aperture that let light in. With it, he saw that whatever shape he made the hole, the sun's image always remained circular. He also noted that increasing the distance between the aperture and the image surface magnified the image.
section:natur :naturphilosophy. philosophy.physics. physics.optic opticaristotl aristotldescrib describexperi experioptic opticuse usecamera cameraobscura obscura`` ``problem problem'' ''book book15 15apparatus apparatusconsist consistdark darkchamber chambersmall smallapertur aperturlet letlight lightsaw sawwhatev whatevshape shapemade madehole holesun sun's 'simag imagalway alwayremain remaincircular circularalso alsonote noteincreas increasdistanc distancapertur aperturimag imagsurfac surfacmagnifi magnifiimag | 308 | Aristotle | Ancient Greek metaphysicians,Ancient literary critics,Ancient Greek mathematicians,Peripatetic philosophers,Ancient Greek political philosophers,Natural philosophers,Philosophers of culture,Social critics,Ancient Greek biologists,Greek male writers,Ancient Greek philosophers of mind,Aristotelianism,Metic philosophers in Classical Athens,Social commentators,Western philosophy,Political philosophers,Irony theorists,Philosophers of law,Ancient Greek ethicists,Ethicists,Metaphysicians,Epistemologists,Philosophy writers,Logicians,Philosophers of education,Virtue ethics,Philosophers of logic,Ancient Greek physicists,Ancient Greek philosophers of language,Philosophy academics,Founders of philosophical traditions,Critical thinking,Social philosophers,Moral philosophers,Virtue ethicists,Western culture,4th-century BC philosophers,Aristotle,Philosophers of ethics and morality,322 BC deaths,Humor researchers,Logic,Trope theorists,Academic philosophers,Ancient Stagirites,Philosophers and tutors of Alexander the Great,Attic Greek writers,Ancient Greek metaphilosophers,Cultural critics,Greek meteorologists,Philosophers of literature,Ancient Greek logicians,Philosophers of art,Ancient Greeks in Macedon,Philosophers of technology,Philosophers of science,4th-century BC writers,Cosmologists,Philosophers of love,384 BC births,Rhetoric theorists,Acting theorists,Virtue,Philosophical logic,Philosophers of ancient Chalcidice,Philosophers of mind,Aristotelian philosophers,Ancient Greek epistemologists,Metaphilosophers |
308-17 | Aristotle
Section::::Natural philosophy.:Physics.:Chance and spontaneity.
According to Aristotle, spontaneity and chance are causes of some things, distinguishable from other types of cause such as simple necessity. Chance as an incidental cause lies in the realm of accidental things, "from what is spontaneous". There is also more a specific kind of chance, which Aristotle names "luck", that only applies to people's moral choices.
section:natur :naturphilosophy. philosophy.physic physicchanc chancspontan spontanaccord accordaristotl aristotlspontan spontanchanc chanccaus causthing thingdistinguish distinguishtype typecaus caussimpl simplnecess necesschanc chancincident incidentcaus causlie lierealm realmaccident accidentthing thing`` ``spontan spontan'' ''also alsospecif specifkind kindchanc chancaristotl aristotlname name`` ``luck luck'' ''appli applipeopl peopl's 'smoral moralchoic | 308 | Aristotle | Ancient Greek metaphysicians,Ancient literary critics,Ancient Greek mathematicians,Peripatetic philosophers,Ancient Greek political philosophers,Natural philosophers,Philosophers of culture,Social critics,Ancient Greek biologists,Greek male writers,Ancient Greek philosophers of mind,Aristotelianism,Metic philosophers in Classical Athens,Social commentators,Western philosophy,Political philosophers,Irony theorists,Philosophers of law,Ancient Greek ethicists,Ethicists,Metaphysicians,Epistemologists,Philosophy writers,Logicians,Philosophers of education,Virtue ethics,Philosophers of logic,Ancient Greek physicists,Ancient Greek philosophers of language,Philosophy academics,Founders of philosophical traditions,Critical thinking,Social philosophers,Moral philosophers,Virtue ethicists,Western culture,4th-century BC philosophers,Aristotle,Philosophers of ethics and morality,322 BC deaths,Humor researchers,Logic,Trope theorists,Academic philosophers,Ancient Stagirites,Philosophers and tutors of Alexander the Great,Attic Greek writers,Ancient Greek metaphilosophers,Cultural critics,Greek meteorologists,Philosophers of literature,Ancient Greek logicians,Philosophers of art,Ancient Greeks in Macedon,Philosophers of technology,Philosophers of science,4th-century BC writers,Cosmologists,Philosophers of love,384 BC births,Rhetoric theorists,Acting theorists,Virtue,Philosophical logic,Philosophers of ancient Chalcidice,Philosophers of mind,Aristotelian philosophers,Ancient Greek epistemologists,Metaphilosophers |
308-18 | Aristotle
Section::::Natural philosophy.:Astronomy.
In astronomy, Aristotle refuted Democritus's claim that the Milky Way was made up of "those stars which are shaded by the earth from the sun's rays," pointing out correctly that if "the size of the sun is greater than that of the earth and the distance of the stars from the earth many times greater than that of the sun, then... the sun shines on all the stars and the earth screens none of them."
section:natur :naturphilosophy. philosophy.astronomi astronomiastronomi astronomiaristotl aristotlrefut refutdemocritus democritus's 'sclaim claimmilki milkiway waymade made`` ``star starshade shadeearth earthsun sun's 'sray ray'' ''point pointcorrect correct`` ``size sizesun sungreater greaterearth earthdistanc distancstar starearth earthmani manitime timegreater greatersun sun... ...sun sunshine shinestar starearth earthscreen screennone none'' | 308 | Aristotle | Ancient Greek metaphysicians,Ancient literary critics,Ancient Greek mathematicians,Peripatetic philosophers,Ancient Greek political philosophers,Natural philosophers,Philosophers of culture,Social critics,Ancient Greek biologists,Greek male writers,Ancient Greek philosophers of mind,Aristotelianism,Metic philosophers in Classical Athens,Social commentators,Western philosophy,Political philosophers,Irony theorists,Philosophers of law,Ancient Greek ethicists,Ethicists,Metaphysicians,Epistemologists,Philosophy writers,Logicians,Philosophers of education,Virtue ethics,Philosophers of logic,Ancient Greek physicists,Ancient Greek philosophers of language,Philosophy academics,Founders of philosophical traditions,Critical thinking,Social philosophers,Moral philosophers,Virtue ethicists,Western culture,4th-century BC philosophers,Aristotle,Philosophers of ethics and morality,322 BC deaths,Humor researchers,Logic,Trope theorists,Academic philosophers,Ancient Stagirites,Philosophers and tutors of Alexander the Great,Attic Greek writers,Ancient Greek metaphilosophers,Cultural critics,Greek meteorologists,Philosophers of literature,Ancient Greek logicians,Philosophers of art,Ancient Greeks in Macedon,Philosophers of technology,Philosophers of science,4th-century BC writers,Cosmologists,Philosophers of love,384 BC births,Rhetoric theorists,Acting theorists,Virtue,Philosophical logic,Philosophers of ancient Chalcidice,Philosophers of mind,Aristotelian philosophers,Ancient Greek epistemologists,Metaphilosophers |
308-19 | Aristotle
Section::::Natural philosophy.:Geology.
Aristotle was one of the first people to record any geological observations. He stated that geological change was too slow to be observed in one person's lifetime.
The geologist Charles Lyell noted that Aristotle described such change, including "lakes that had dried up" and "deserts that had become watered by rivers", giving as examples the growth of the Nile delta since the time of Homer, and "the upheaving of one of the Aeolian islands, previous to a volcanic eruption."'
section:natur :naturphilosophy. philosophy.geolog geologaristotl aristotlone onefirst firstpeopl peoplrecord recordgeolog geologobserv observstate stategeolog geologchang changslow slowobserv observone oneperson person's 'slifetim lifetimgeologist geologistcharl charllyell lyellnote notearistotl aristotldescrib describchang changinclud includ`` ``lake lakedri dri'' ''`` ``desert desertbecom becomwater waterriver river'' ''give giveexampl examplgrowth growthnile niledelta deltasinc sinctime timehomer homer`` ``upheav upheavone oneaeolian aeolianisland islandprevious previousvolcan volcanerupt erupt'' | 308 | Aristotle | Ancient Greek metaphysicians,Ancient literary critics,Ancient Greek mathematicians,Peripatetic philosophers,Ancient Greek political philosophers,Natural philosophers,Philosophers of culture,Social critics,Ancient Greek biologists,Greek male writers,Ancient Greek philosophers of mind,Aristotelianism,Metic philosophers in Classical Athens,Social commentators,Western philosophy,Political philosophers,Irony theorists,Philosophers of law,Ancient Greek ethicists,Ethicists,Metaphysicians,Epistemologists,Philosophy writers,Logicians,Philosophers of education,Virtue ethics,Philosophers of logic,Ancient Greek physicists,Ancient Greek philosophers of language,Philosophy academics,Founders of philosophical traditions,Critical thinking,Social philosophers,Moral philosophers,Virtue ethicists,Western culture,4th-century BC philosophers,Aristotle,Philosophers of ethics and morality,322 BC deaths,Humor researchers,Logic,Trope theorists,Academic philosophers,Ancient Stagirites,Philosophers and tutors of Alexander the Great,Attic Greek writers,Ancient Greek metaphilosophers,Cultural critics,Greek meteorologists,Philosophers of literature,Ancient Greek logicians,Philosophers of art,Ancient Greeks in Macedon,Philosophers of technology,Philosophers of science,4th-century BC writers,Cosmologists,Philosophers of love,384 BC births,Rhetoric theorists,Acting theorists,Virtue,Philosophical logic,Philosophers of ancient Chalcidice,Philosophers of mind,Aristotelian philosophers,Ancient Greek epistemologists,Metaphilosophers |
308-20 | Aristotle
Section::::Natural philosophy.:Biology.
section:natur :naturphilosophi philosophibiolog | 308 | Aristotle | Ancient Greek metaphysicians,Ancient literary critics,Ancient Greek mathematicians,Peripatetic philosophers,Ancient Greek political philosophers,Natural philosophers,Philosophers of culture,Social critics,Ancient Greek biologists,Greek male writers,Ancient Greek philosophers of mind,Aristotelianism,Metic philosophers in Classical Athens,Social commentators,Western philosophy,Political philosophers,Irony theorists,Philosophers of law,Ancient Greek ethicists,Ethicists,Metaphysicians,Epistemologists,Philosophy writers,Logicians,Philosophers of education,Virtue ethics,Philosophers of logic,Ancient Greek physicists,Ancient Greek philosophers of language,Philosophy academics,Founders of philosophical traditions,Critical thinking,Social philosophers,Moral philosophers,Virtue ethicists,Western culture,4th-century BC philosophers,Aristotle,Philosophers of ethics and morality,322 BC deaths,Humor researchers,Logic,Trope theorists,Academic philosophers,Ancient Stagirites,Philosophers and tutors of Alexander the Great,Attic Greek writers,Ancient Greek metaphilosophers,Cultural critics,Greek meteorologists,Philosophers of literature,Ancient Greek logicians,Philosophers of art,Ancient Greeks in Macedon,Philosophers of technology,Philosophers of science,4th-century BC writers,Cosmologists,Philosophers of love,384 BC births,Rhetoric theorists,Acting theorists,Virtue,Philosophical logic,Philosophers of ancient Chalcidice,Philosophers of mind,Aristotelian philosophers,Ancient Greek epistemologists,Metaphilosophers |
308-21 | Aristotle
Section::::Natural philosophy.:Biology.:Empirical research.
Aristotle was the first person to study biology systematically, and biology forms a large part of his writings. He spent two years observing and describing the zoology of Lesbos and the surrounding seas, including in particular the Pyrrha lagoon in the centre of Lesbos. His data in "History of Animals", "Generation of Animals", "Movement of Animals", and "Parts of Animals" are assembled from his own observations, statements given by people with specialised knowledge such as beekeepers and fishermen, and less accurate accounts provided by travellers from overseas. His apparent emphasis on animals rather than plants is a historical accident: his works on botany have been lost, but two books on plants by his pupil Theophrastus have survived.
Aristotle reports on the sea-life visible from observation on Lesbos and the catches of fishermen. He describes the catfish, electric ray, and frogfish in detail, as well as cephalopods such as the octopus and paper nautilus. His description of the hectocotyl arm of cephalopods, used in sexual reproduction, was widely disbelieved until the 19th century. He gives accurate descriptions of the four-chambered fore-stomachs of ruminants, and of the ovoviviparous embryological development of the hound shark.
He notes that an animal's structure is well matched to function, so, among birds, the heron, which lives in marshes with soft mud and lives by catching fish, has a long neck and long legs, and a sharp spear-like beak, whereas ducks that swim have short legs and webbed feet. Darwin, too, noted these sorts of differences between similar kinds of animal, but unlike Aristotle used the data to come to the theory of evolution. Aristotle's writings can seem to modern readers close to implying evolution, but while Aristotle was aware that new mutations or hybridisations could occur, he saw these as rare accidents. For Aristotle, accidents, like heat waves in winter, must be considered distinct from natural causes. He was thus critical of Empedocles's materialist theory of a "survival of the fittest" origin of living things and their organs, and ridiculed the idea that accidents could lead to orderly results. To put his views into modern terms, he nowhere says that different species can have a common ancestor, or that one kind can change into another, or that kinds can become extinct.
section:natur :naturphilosophy. philosophy.biolog biologempir empirresearch researcharistotl aristotlfirst firstperson personstudi studibiolog biologsystemat systematbiolog biologform formlarg largpart partwrite writespent spenttwo twoyear yearobserv observdescrib describzoolog zoologlesbo lesbosurround surroundsea seainclud includparticular particularpyrrha pyrrhalagoon lagooncentr centrlesbo lesbodata data`` ``histori historianim anim'' ''`` ``generat generatanim anim'' ''`` ``movement movementanim anim'' ''`` ``part partanim anim'' ''assembl assemblobserv observstatement statementgiven givenpeopl peoplspecialis specialisknowledg knowledgbeekeep beekeepfishermen fishermenless lessaccur accuraccount accountprovid providtravel traveloversea overseaappar apparemphasi emphasianim animrather ratherplant planthistor historaccid accidwork workbotani botanilost losttwo twobook bookplant plantpupil pupiltheophrastus theophrastussurviv survivaristotl aristotlreport reportsea-lif sea-lifvisibl visiblobserv observlesbo lesbocatch catchfishermen fishermendescrib describcatfish catfishelectr electrray rayfrogfish frogfishdetail detailwell wellcephalopod cephalopodoctopus octopuspaper papernautilus nautilusdescript descripthectocotyl hectocotylarm armcephalopod cephalopoduse usesexual sexualreproduct reproductwide widedisbeliev disbeliev19th 19thcenturi centurigive giveaccur accurdescript descriptfour-chamb four-chambfore-stomach fore-stomachrumin ruminovovivipar ovoviviparembryolog embryologdevelop develophound houndshark sharknote noteanim anim's 'sstructur structurwell wellmatch matchfunction functionamong amongbird birdheron heronlive livemarsh marshsoft softmud mudlive livecatch catchfish fishlong longneck necklong longleg legsharp sharpspear-lik spear-likbeak beakwherea whereaduck duckswim swimshort shortleg legweb webfeet feetdarwin darwinnote notesort sortdiffer differsimilar similarkind kindanim animunlik unlikaristotl aristotluse usedata datacome cometheori theorievolut evolutaristotl aristotl's 'swrite writeseem seemmodern modernreader readerclose closeimpli implievolut evolutaristotl aristotlawar awarnew newmutat mutathybridis hybridiscould couldoccur occursaw sawrare rareaccid accidaristotl aristotlaccid accidlike likeheat heatwave wavewinter wintermust mustconsid considdistinct distinctnatur naturcaus causthus thuscritic criticempedocl empedocl's 'smaterialist materialisttheori theori`` ``surviv survivfittest fittest'' ''origin originlive livething thingorgan organridicul ridiculidea ideaaccid accidcould couldlead leadorder orderresult resultput putview viewmodern modernterm termnowher nowhersay saydiffer differspeci specicommon commonancestor ancestorone onekind kindchang changanoth anothkind kindbecom becomextinct | 308 | Aristotle | Ancient Greek metaphysicians,Ancient literary critics,Ancient Greek mathematicians,Peripatetic philosophers,Ancient Greek political philosophers,Natural philosophers,Philosophers of culture,Social critics,Ancient Greek biologists,Greek male writers,Ancient Greek philosophers of mind,Aristotelianism,Metic philosophers in Classical Athens,Social commentators,Western philosophy,Political philosophers,Irony theorists,Philosophers of law,Ancient Greek ethicists,Ethicists,Metaphysicians,Epistemologists,Philosophy writers,Logicians,Philosophers of education,Virtue ethics,Philosophers of logic,Ancient Greek physicists,Ancient Greek philosophers of language,Philosophy academics,Founders of philosophical traditions,Critical thinking,Social philosophers,Moral philosophers,Virtue ethicists,Western culture,4th-century BC philosophers,Aristotle,Philosophers of ethics and morality,322 BC deaths,Humor researchers,Logic,Trope theorists,Academic philosophers,Ancient Stagirites,Philosophers and tutors of Alexander the Great,Attic Greek writers,Ancient Greek metaphilosophers,Cultural critics,Greek meteorologists,Philosophers of literature,Ancient Greek logicians,Philosophers of art,Ancient Greeks in Macedon,Philosophers of technology,Philosophers of science,4th-century BC writers,Cosmologists,Philosophers of love,384 BC births,Rhetoric theorists,Acting theorists,Virtue,Philosophical logic,Philosophers of ancient Chalcidice,Philosophers of mind,Aristotelian philosophers,Ancient Greek epistemologists,Metaphilosophers |
308-22 | Aristotle
Section::::Natural philosophy.:Biology.:Scientific style.
Aristotle did not do experiments in the modern sense. He used the ancient Greek term "pepeiramenoi" to mean observations, or at most investigative procedures like dissection. In "Generation of Animals", he finds a fertilised hen's egg of a suitable stage and opens it to see the embryo's heart beating inside.
Instead, he practised a different style of science: systematically gathering data, discovering patterns common to whole groups of animals, and inferring possible causal explanations from these. This style is common in modern biology when large amounts of data become available in a new field, such as genomics. It does not result in the same certainty as experimental science, but it sets out testable hypotheses and constructs a narrative explanation of what is observed. In this sense, Aristotle's biology is scientific.
From the data he collected and documented, Aristotle inferred quite a number of rules relating the life-history features of the live-bearing tetrapods (terrestrial placental mammals) that he studied. Among these correct predictions are the following. Brood size decreases with (adult) body mass, so that an elephant has fewer young (usually just one) per brood than a mouse. Lifespan increases with gestation period, and also with body mass, so that elephants live longer than mice, have a longer period of gestation, and are heavier. As a final example, fecundity decreases with lifespan, so long-lived kinds like elephants have fewer young in total than short-lived kinds like mice.
section:natur :naturphilosophy. philosophy.biolog biologscientif scientifstyle stylearistotl aristotlexperi experimodern modernsens sensuse useancient ancientgreek greekterm term`` ``pepeiramenoi pepeiramenoi'' ''mean meanobserv observinvestig investigprocedur procedurlike likedissect dissect`` ``generat generatanim anim'' ''find findfertilis fertilishen hen's 'segg eggsuitabl suitablstage stageopen opensee seeembryo embryo's 'sheart heartbeat beatinsid insidinstead insteadpractis practisdiffer differstyle stylescienc sciencsystemat systematgather gatherdata datadiscov discovpattern patterncommon commonwhole wholegroup groupanim animinfer inferpossibl possiblcausal causalexplan explanstyle stylecommon commonmodern modernbiolog biologlarg largamount amountdata databecom becomavail availnew newfield fieldgenom genomresult resultcertainti certaintiexperiment experimentscienc sciencset settestabl testablhypothes hypothesconstruct constructnarrat narratexplan explanobserv observsens sensaristotl aristotl's 'sbiolog biologscientif scientifdata datacollect collectdocument documentaristotl aristotlinfer inferquit quitnumber numberrule rulerelat relatlife-histori life-historifeatur featurlive-bear live-beartetrapod tetrapodterrestri terrestriplacent placentmammal mammalstudi studiamong amongcorrect correctpredict predictfollow followbrood broodsize sizedecreas decreasadult adultbodi bodimass masseleph elephfewer feweryoung youngusual usualone oneper perbrood broodmous mouslifespan lifespanincreas increasgestat gestatperiod periodalso alsobodi bodimass masseleph elephlive livelonger longermice micelonger longerperiod periodgestat gestatheavier heavierfinal finalexampl examplfecund fecunddecreas decreaslifespan lifespanlong-liv long-livkind kindlike likeeleph elephfewer feweryoung youngtotal totalshort-liv short-livkind kindlike likemice | 308 | Aristotle | Ancient Greek metaphysicians,Ancient literary critics,Ancient Greek mathematicians,Peripatetic philosophers,Ancient Greek political philosophers,Natural philosophers,Philosophers of culture,Social critics,Ancient Greek biologists,Greek male writers,Ancient Greek philosophers of mind,Aristotelianism,Metic philosophers in Classical Athens,Social commentators,Western philosophy,Political philosophers,Irony theorists,Philosophers of law,Ancient Greek ethicists,Ethicists,Metaphysicians,Epistemologists,Philosophy writers,Logicians,Philosophers of education,Virtue ethics,Philosophers of logic,Ancient Greek physicists,Ancient Greek philosophers of language,Philosophy academics,Founders of philosophical traditions,Critical thinking,Social philosophers,Moral philosophers,Virtue ethicists,Western culture,4th-century BC philosophers,Aristotle,Philosophers of ethics and morality,322 BC deaths,Humor researchers,Logic,Trope theorists,Academic philosophers,Ancient Stagirites,Philosophers and tutors of Alexander the Great,Attic Greek writers,Ancient Greek metaphilosophers,Cultural critics,Greek meteorologists,Philosophers of literature,Ancient Greek logicians,Philosophers of art,Ancient Greeks in Macedon,Philosophers of technology,Philosophers of science,4th-century BC writers,Cosmologists,Philosophers of love,384 BC births,Rhetoric theorists,Acting theorists,Virtue,Philosophical logic,Philosophers of ancient Chalcidice,Philosophers of mind,Aristotelian philosophers,Ancient Greek epistemologists,Metaphilosophers |
308-23 | Aristotle
Section::::Natural philosophy.:Biology.:Classification of living things.
Aristotle distinguished about 500 species of animals, arranging these in the "History of Animals" in a graded scale of perfection, a "scala naturae", with man at the top. His system had eleven grades of animal, from highest potential to lowest, expressed in their form at birth: the highest gave live birth to hot and wet creatures, the lowest laid cold, dry mineral-like eggs. Animals came above plants, and these in turn were above minerals. see also: He grouped what the modern zoologist would call vertebrates as the hotter "animals with blood", and below them the colder invertebrates as "animals without blood". Those with blood were divided into the live-bearing (mammals), and the egg-laying (birds, reptiles, fish). Those without blood were insects, crustacea (non-shelled – cephalopods, and shelled) and the hard-shelled molluscs (bivalves and gastropods). He recognised that animals did not exactly fit into a linear scale, and noted various exceptions, such as that sharks had a placenta like the tetrapods. To a modern biologist, the explanation, not available to Aristotle, is convergent evolution. He believed that purposive final causes guided all natural processes; this teleological view justified his observed data as an expression of formal design.
section:natur :naturphilosophy. philosophy.biolog biologclassif classiflive livething thingaristotl aristotldistinguish distinguish500 500speci specianim animarrang arrang`` ``histori historianim anim'' ''grade gradescale scaleperfect perfect`` ``scala scalanatura natura'' ''man mantop topsystem systemeleven elevengrade gradeanim animhighest highestpotenti potentilowest lowestexpress expressform formbirth birthhighest highestgave gavelive livebirth birthhot hotwet wetcreatur creaturlowest lowestlaid laidcold colddri drimineral-lik mineral-likegg egganim animcame cameplant plantturn turnminer minersee seealso alsogroup groupmodern modernzoologist zoologistwould wouldcall callvertebr vertebrhotter hotter`` ``anim animblood blood'' ''colder colderinvertebr invertebr`` ``anim animwithout withoutblood blood'' ''blood blooddivid dividlive-bear live-bearmammal mammalegg-lay egg-laybird birdreptil reptilfish fishwithout withoutblood bloodinsect insectcrustacea crustaceanon-shel non-shel– –cephalopod cephalopodshell shellhard-shel hard-shelmollusc molluscbivalv bivalvgastropod gastropodrecognis recognisanim animexact exactfit fitlinear linearscale scalenote notevarious variousexcept exceptshark sharkplacenta placentalike liketetrapod tetrapodmodern modernbiologist biologistexplan explanavail availaristotl aristotlconverg convergevolut evolutbeliev believpurpos purposfinal finalcaus causguid guidnatur naturprocess processteleolog teleologview viewjustifi justifiobserv observdata dataexpress expressformal formaldesign | 308 | Aristotle | Ancient Greek metaphysicians,Ancient literary critics,Ancient Greek mathematicians,Peripatetic philosophers,Ancient Greek political philosophers,Natural philosophers,Philosophers of culture,Social critics,Ancient Greek biologists,Greek male writers,Ancient Greek philosophers of mind,Aristotelianism,Metic philosophers in Classical Athens,Social commentators,Western philosophy,Political philosophers,Irony theorists,Philosophers of law,Ancient Greek ethicists,Ethicists,Metaphysicians,Epistemologists,Philosophy writers,Logicians,Philosophers of education,Virtue ethics,Philosophers of logic,Ancient Greek physicists,Ancient Greek philosophers of language,Philosophy academics,Founders of philosophical traditions,Critical thinking,Social philosophers,Moral philosophers,Virtue ethicists,Western culture,4th-century BC philosophers,Aristotle,Philosophers of ethics and morality,322 BC deaths,Humor researchers,Logic,Trope theorists,Academic philosophers,Ancient Stagirites,Philosophers and tutors of Alexander the Great,Attic Greek writers,Ancient Greek metaphilosophers,Cultural critics,Greek meteorologists,Philosophers of literature,Ancient Greek logicians,Philosophers of art,Ancient Greeks in Macedon,Philosophers of technology,Philosophers of science,4th-century BC writers,Cosmologists,Philosophers of love,384 BC births,Rhetoric theorists,Acting theorists,Virtue,Philosophical logic,Philosophers of ancient Chalcidice,Philosophers of mind,Aristotelian philosophers,Ancient Greek epistemologists,Metaphilosophers |
308-24 | Aristotle
Section::::Natural philosophy.:Psychology.
section:natur :naturphilosophi philosophipsycholog | 308 | Aristotle | Ancient Greek metaphysicians,Ancient literary critics,Ancient Greek mathematicians,Peripatetic philosophers,Ancient Greek political philosophers,Natural philosophers,Philosophers of culture,Social critics,Ancient Greek biologists,Greek male writers,Ancient Greek philosophers of mind,Aristotelianism,Metic philosophers in Classical Athens,Social commentators,Western philosophy,Political philosophers,Irony theorists,Philosophers of law,Ancient Greek ethicists,Ethicists,Metaphysicians,Epistemologists,Philosophy writers,Logicians,Philosophers of education,Virtue ethics,Philosophers of logic,Ancient Greek physicists,Ancient Greek philosophers of language,Philosophy academics,Founders of philosophical traditions,Critical thinking,Social philosophers,Moral philosophers,Virtue ethicists,Western culture,4th-century BC philosophers,Aristotle,Philosophers of ethics and morality,322 BC deaths,Humor researchers,Logic,Trope theorists,Academic philosophers,Ancient Stagirites,Philosophers and tutors of Alexander the Great,Attic Greek writers,Ancient Greek metaphilosophers,Cultural critics,Greek meteorologists,Philosophers of literature,Ancient Greek logicians,Philosophers of art,Ancient Greeks in Macedon,Philosophers of technology,Philosophers of science,4th-century BC writers,Cosmologists,Philosophers of love,384 BC births,Rhetoric theorists,Acting theorists,Virtue,Philosophical logic,Philosophers of ancient Chalcidice,Philosophers of mind,Aristotelian philosophers,Ancient Greek epistemologists,Metaphilosophers |
308-25 | Aristotle
Section::::Natural philosophy.:Psychology.:Soul.
Aristotle's psychology, given in his treatise "On the Soul" ("peri psychēs"), posits three kinds of soul ("psyches"): the vegetative soul, the sensitive soul, and the rational soul. Humans have a rational soul. The human soul incorporates the powers of the other kinds: Like the vegetative soul it can grow and nourish itself; like the sensitive soul it can experience sensations and move locally. The unique part of the human, rational soul is its ability to receive forms of other things and to compare them using the "nous" (intellect) and "logos" (reason).
For Aristotle, the soul is the form of a living being. Because all beings are composites of form and matter, the form of living beings is that which endows them with what is specific to living beings, e.g. the ability to initiate movement (or in the case of plants, growth and chemical transformations, which Aristotle considers types of movement). In contrast to earlier philosophers, but in accordance with the Egyptians, he placed the rational soul in the heart, rather than the brain. Notable is Aristotle's division of sensation and thought, which generally differed from the concepts of previous philosophers, with the exception of Alcmaeon.
section:natur :naturphilosophy. philosophy.psychology. psychology.soul soularistotl aristotl's 'spsycholog psychologgiven giventreatis treatis`` ``soul soul'' ''`` ``peri peripsychē psychē'' ''posit positthree threekind kindsoul soul`` ``psych psych'' ''veget vegetsoul soulsensit sensitsoul soulration rationsoul soulhuman humanration rationsoul soulhuman humansoul soulincorpor incorporpower powerkind kindlike likeveget vegetsoul soulgrow grownourish nourishlike likesensit sensitsoul soulexperi experisensat sensatmove movelocal localuniqu uniqupart parthuman humanration rationsoul soulabil abilreceiv receivform formthing thingcompar comparuse use`` ``nous nous'' ''intellect intellect`` ``logo logo'' ''reason reasonaristotl aristotlsoul soulform formlive livebe becomposit compositform formmatter matterform formlive livebe beendow endowspecif speciflive livebe bee.g e.gabil abiliniti initimovement movementcase caseplant plantgrowth growthchemic chemictransform transformaristotl aristotlconsid considtype typemovement movementcontrast contrastearlier earlierphilosoph philosophaccord accordegyptian egyptianplace placeration rationsoul soulheart heartrather ratherbrain brainnotabl notablaristotl aristotl's 'sdivis divissensat sensatthought thoughtgeneral generaldiffer differconcept conceptprevious previousphilosoph philosophexcept exceptalcmaeon | 308 | Aristotle | Ancient Greek metaphysicians,Ancient literary critics,Ancient Greek mathematicians,Peripatetic philosophers,Ancient Greek political philosophers,Natural philosophers,Philosophers of culture,Social critics,Ancient Greek biologists,Greek male writers,Ancient Greek philosophers of mind,Aristotelianism,Metic philosophers in Classical Athens,Social commentators,Western philosophy,Political philosophers,Irony theorists,Philosophers of law,Ancient Greek ethicists,Ethicists,Metaphysicians,Epistemologists,Philosophy writers,Logicians,Philosophers of education,Virtue ethics,Philosophers of logic,Ancient Greek physicists,Ancient Greek philosophers of language,Philosophy academics,Founders of philosophical traditions,Critical thinking,Social philosophers,Moral philosophers,Virtue ethicists,Western culture,4th-century BC philosophers,Aristotle,Philosophers of ethics and morality,322 BC deaths,Humor researchers,Logic,Trope theorists,Academic philosophers,Ancient Stagirites,Philosophers and tutors of Alexander the Great,Attic Greek writers,Ancient Greek metaphilosophers,Cultural critics,Greek meteorologists,Philosophers of literature,Ancient Greek logicians,Philosophers of art,Ancient Greeks in Macedon,Philosophers of technology,Philosophers of science,4th-century BC writers,Cosmologists,Philosophers of love,384 BC births,Rhetoric theorists,Acting theorists,Virtue,Philosophical logic,Philosophers of ancient Chalcidice,Philosophers of mind,Aristotelian philosophers,Ancient Greek epistemologists,Metaphilosophers |
308-26 | Aristotle
Section::::Natural philosophy.:Psychology.:Memory.
According to Aristotle in "On the Soul", memory is the ability to hold a perceived experience in the mind and to distinguish between the internal "appearance" and an occurrence in the past. In other words, a memory is a mental picture (phantasm) that can be recovered. Aristotle believed an impression is left on a semi-fluid bodily organ that undergoes several changes in order to make a memory. A memory occurs when stimuli such as sights or sounds are so complex that the nervous system cannot receive all the impressions at once. These changes are the same as those involved in the operations of sensation, Aristotelian 'common sense', and thinking.
Aristotle uses the term 'memory' for the actual retaining of an experience in the impression that can develop from sensation, and for the intellectual anxiety that comes with the impression because it is formed at a particular time and processing specific contents. Memory is of the past, prediction is of the future, and sensation is of the present. Retrieval of impressions cannot be performed suddenly. A transitional channel is needed and located in our past experiences, both for our previous experience and present experience.
Because Aristotle believes people receive all kinds of sense perceptions and perceive them as impressions, people are continually weaving together new impressions of experiences. To search for these impressions, people search the memory itself. Within the memory, if one experience is offered instead of a specific memory, that person will reject this experience until they find what they are looking for. Recollection occurs when one retrieved experience naturally follows another. If the chain of "images" is needed, one memory will stimulate the next. When people recall experiences, they stimulate certain previous experiences until they reach the one that is needed. Recollection is thus the self-directed activity of retrieving the information stored in a memory impression. Only humans can remember impressions of intellectual activity, such as numbers and words. Animals that have perception of time can retrieve memories of their past observations. Remembering involves only perception of the things remembered and of the time passed.
Aristotle believed the chain of thought, which ends in recollection of certain impressions, was connected systematically in relationships such as similarity, contrast, and contiguity, described in his Laws of Association. Aristotle believed that past experiences are hidden within the mind. A force operates to awaken the hidden material to bring up the actual experience. According to Aristotle, association is the power innate in a mental state, which operates upon the unexpressed remains of former experiences, allowing them to rise and be recalled.
section:natur :naturphilosophy. philosophy.psychology. psychology.memori memoriaccord accordaristotl aristotl`` ``soul soul'' ''memori memoriabil abilhold holdperceiv perceivexperi experimind minddistinguish distinguishintern intern`` ``appear appear'' ''occurr occurrpast pastword wordmemori memorimental mentalpictur picturphantasm phantasmrecov recovaristotl aristotlbeliev believimpress impressleft leftsemi-fluid semi-fluidbodili bodiliorgan organundergo undergosever severchang changorder ordermake makememori memorimemori memorioccur occurstimuli stimulisight sightsound soundcomplex complexnervous nervoussystem systemreceiv receivimpress impresschang changinvolv involvoper opersensat sensataristotelian aristoteliancommon commonsens sensthink thinkaristotl aristotluse useterm termmemori memoriactual actualretain retainexperi experiimpress impressdevelop developsensat sensatintellectu intellectuanxieti anxieticome comeimpress impressform formparticular particulartime timeprocess processspecif specifcontent contentmemori memoripast pastpredict predictfutur futursensat sensatpresent presentretriev retrievimpress impressperform performsudden suddentransit transitchannel channelneed needlocat locatpast pastexperi experiprevious previousexperi experipresent presentexperi experiaristotl aristotlbeliev believpeopl peoplreceiv receivkind kindsens senspercept perceptperceiv perceivimpress impresspeopl peoplcontinu continuweav weavtogeth togethnew newimpress impressexperi experisearch searchimpress impresspeopl peoplsearch searchmemori memoriwithin withinmemori memorione oneexperi experioffer offerinstead insteadspecif specifmemori memoriperson personreject rejectexperi experifind findlook lookrecollect recollectoccur occurone oneretriev retrievexperi experinatur naturfollow followanoth anothchain chain`` ``imag imag'' ''need needone onememori memoristimul stimulnext nextpeopl peoplrecal recalexperi experistimul stimulcertain certainprevious previousexperi experireach reachone oneneed needrecollect recollectthus thusself-direct self-directactiv activretriev retrievinform informstore storememori memoriimpress impresshuman humanrememb remembimpress impressintellectu intellectuactiv activnumber numberword wordanim animpercept percepttime timeretriev retrievmemori memoripast pastobserv observrememb remembinvolv involvpercept perceptthing thingrememb remembtime timepass passaristotl aristotlbeliev believchain chainthought thoughtend endrecollect recollectcertain certainimpress impressconnect connectsystemat systematrelationship relationshipsimilar similarcontrast contrastcontigu contigudescrib describlaw lawassoci associaristotl aristotlbeliev believpast pastexperi experihidden hiddenwithin withinmind mindforc forcoper operawaken awakenhidden hiddenmateri materibring bringactual actualexperi experiaccord accordaristotl aristotlassoci associpower powerinnat innatmental mentalstate stateoper operupon uponunexpress unexpressremain remainformer formerexperi experiallow allowrise riserecal | 308 | Aristotle | Ancient Greek metaphysicians,Ancient literary critics,Ancient Greek mathematicians,Peripatetic philosophers,Ancient Greek political philosophers,Natural philosophers,Philosophers of culture,Social critics,Ancient Greek biologists,Greek male writers,Ancient Greek philosophers of mind,Aristotelianism,Metic philosophers in Classical Athens,Social commentators,Western philosophy,Political philosophers,Irony theorists,Philosophers of law,Ancient Greek ethicists,Ethicists,Metaphysicians,Epistemologists,Philosophy writers,Logicians,Philosophers of education,Virtue ethics,Philosophers of logic,Ancient Greek physicists,Ancient Greek philosophers of language,Philosophy academics,Founders of philosophical traditions,Critical thinking,Social philosophers,Moral philosophers,Virtue ethicists,Western culture,4th-century BC philosophers,Aristotle,Philosophers of ethics and morality,322 BC deaths,Humor researchers,Logic,Trope theorists,Academic philosophers,Ancient Stagirites,Philosophers and tutors of Alexander the Great,Attic Greek writers,Ancient Greek metaphilosophers,Cultural critics,Greek meteorologists,Philosophers of literature,Ancient Greek logicians,Philosophers of art,Ancient Greeks in Macedon,Philosophers of technology,Philosophers of science,4th-century BC writers,Cosmologists,Philosophers of love,384 BC births,Rhetoric theorists,Acting theorists,Virtue,Philosophical logic,Philosophers of ancient Chalcidice,Philosophers of mind,Aristotelian philosophers,Ancient Greek epistemologists,Metaphilosophers |
308-27 | Aristotle
Section::::Natural philosophy.:Psychology.:Dreams.
Aristotle describes sleep in "On Sleep and Wakefulness". Sleep takes place as a result of overuse of the senses or of digestion, so it is vital to the body. While a person is asleep, the critical activities, which include thinking, sensing, recalling and remembering, do not function as they do during wakefulness. Since a person cannot sense during sleep they can not have desire, which is the result of sensation. However, the senses are able to work during sleep, albeit differently, unless they are weary.
Dreams do not involve actually sensing a stimulus. In dreams, sensation is still involved, but in an altered manner. Aristotle explains that when a person stares at a moving stimulus such as the waves in a body of water, and then look away, the next thing they look at appears to have a wavelike motion. When a person perceives a stimulus and the stimulus is no longer the focus of their attention, it leaves an impression. When the body is awake and the senses are functioning properly, a person constantly encounters new stimuli to sense and so the impressions of previously perceived stimuli are ignored. However, during sleep the impressions made throughout the day are noticed as there are no new distracting sensory experiences. So, dreams result from these lasting impressions. Since impressions are all that are left and not the exact stimuli, dreams do not resemble the actual waking experience. During sleep, a person is in an altered state of mind. Aristotle compares a sleeping person to a person who is overtaken by strong feelings toward a stimulus. For example, a person who has a strong infatuation with someone may begin to think they see that person everywhere because they are so overtaken by their feelings. Since a person sleeping is in a suggestible state and unable to make judgements, they become easily deceived by what appears in their dreams, like the infatuated person. This leads the person to believe the dream is real, even when the dreams are absurd in nature.
One component of Aristotle's theory of dreams disagrees with previously held beliefs. He claimed that dreams are not foretelling and not sent by a divine being. Aristotle reasoned naturalistically that instances in which dreams do resemble future events are simply coincidences. Aristotle claimed that a dream is first established by the fact that the person is asleep when they experience it. If a person had an image appear for a moment after waking up or if they see something in the dark it is not considered a dream because they were awake when it occurred. Secondly, any sensory experience that is perceived while a person is asleep does not qualify as part of a dream. For example, if, while a person is sleeping, a door shuts and in their dream they hear a door is shut, this sensory experience is not part of the dream. Lastly, the images of dreams must be a result of lasting impressions of waking sensory experiences.
section:natur :naturphilosophy. philosophy.psychology. psychology.dream dreamaristotl aristotldescrib describsleep sleep`` ``sleep sleepwake wake'' ''sleep sleeptake takeplace placeresult resultoverus overussens sensdigest digestvital vitalbodi bodiperson personasleep asleepcritic criticactiv activinclud includthink thinksens sensrecal recalrememb remembfunction functionwake wakesinc sincperson personsens senssleep sleepdesir desirresult resultsensat sensathowev howevsens sensabl ablwork worksleep sleepalbeit albeitdiffer differunless unlessweari wearidream dreaminvolv involvactual actualsens sensstimulus stimulusdream dreamsensat sensatstill stillinvolv involvalter altermanner manneraristotl aristotlexplain explainperson personstare staremove movestimulus stimuluswave wavebodi bodiwater waterlook lookaway awaynext nextthing thinglook lookappear appearwavelik wavelikmotion motionperson personperceiv perceivstimulus stimulusstimulus stimuluslonger longerfocus focusattent attentleav leavimpress impressbodi bodiawak awaksens sensfunction functionproper properperson personconstant constantencount encountnew newstimuli stimulisens sensimpress impressprevious previousperceiv perceivstimuli stimuliignor ignorhowev howevsleep sleepimpress impressmade madethroughout throughoutday daynotic noticnew newdistract distractsensori sensoriexperi experidream dreamresult resultlast lastimpress impresssinc sincimpress impressleft leftexact exactstimuli stimulidream dreamresembl resemblactual actualwake wakeexperi experisleep sleepperson personalter alterstate statemind mindaristotl aristotlcompar comparsleep sleepperson personperson personovertaken overtakenstrong strongfeel feeltoward towardstimulus stimulusexampl examplperson personstrong stronginfatu infatusomeon someonmay maybegin beginthink thinksee seeperson personeverywher everywherovertaken overtakenfeel feelsinc sincperson personsleep sleepsuggest suggeststate stateunabl unablmake makejudgement judgementbecom becomeasili easilideceiv deceivappear appeardream dreamlike likeinfatu infatuperson personlead leadperson personbeliev believdream dreamreal realeven evendream dreamabsurd absurdnatur naturone onecompon componaristotl aristotl's 'stheori theoridream dreamdisagre disagreprevious previousheld heldbelief beliefclaim claimdream dreamforetel foretelsent sentdivin divinaristotl aristotlreason reasonnaturalist naturalistinstanc instancdream dreamresembl resemblfutur futurevent eventsimpli simplicoincid coincidaristotl aristotlclaim claimdream dreamfirst firstestablish establishfact factperson personasleep asleepexperi experiperson personimag imagappear appearmoment momentwake wakesee seesometh somethdark darkconsid considdream dreamawak awakoccur occursecond secondsensori sensoriexperi experiperceiv perceivperson personasleep asleepqualifi qualifipart partdream dreamexampl examplperson personsleep sleepdoor doorshut shutdream dreamhear heardoor doorshut shutsensori sensoriexperi experipart partdream dreamlast lastimag imagdream dreammust mustresult resultlast lastimpress impresswake wakesensori sensoriexperi | 308 | Aristotle | Ancient Greek metaphysicians,Ancient literary critics,Ancient Greek mathematicians,Peripatetic philosophers,Ancient Greek political philosophers,Natural philosophers,Philosophers of culture,Social critics,Ancient Greek biologists,Greek male writers,Ancient Greek philosophers of mind,Aristotelianism,Metic philosophers in Classical Athens,Social commentators,Western philosophy,Political philosophers,Irony theorists,Philosophers of law,Ancient Greek ethicists,Ethicists,Metaphysicians,Epistemologists,Philosophy writers,Logicians,Philosophers of education,Virtue ethics,Philosophers of logic,Ancient Greek physicists,Ancient Greek philosophers of language,Philosophy academics,Founders of philosophical traditions,Critical thinking,Social philosophers,Moral philosophers,Virtue ethicists,Western culture,4th-century BC philosophers,Aristotle,Philosophers of ethics and morality,322 BC deaths,Humor researchers,Logic,Trope theorists,Academic philosophers,Ancient Stagirites,Philosophers and tutors of Alexander the Great,Attic Greek writers,Ancient Greek metaphilosophers,Cultural critics,Greek meteorologists,Philosophers of literature,Ancient Greek logicians,Philosophers of art,Ancient Greeks in Macedon,Philosophers of technology,Philosophers of science,4th-century BC writers,Cosmologists,Philosophers of love,384 BC births,Rhetoric theorists,Acting theorists,Virtue,Philosophical logic,Philosophers of ancient Chalcidice,Philosophers of mind,Aristotelian philosophers,Ancient Greek epistemologists,Metaphilosophers |
308-28 | Aristotle
Section::::Practical philosophy.
Aristotle's practical philosophy covers areas such as ethics, politics, economics, and rhetoric.
section:practic :practicphilosophi philosophiaristotl aristotl's 'spractic practicphilosophi philosophicover coverarea areaethic ethicpolit politeconom economrhetor | 308 | Aristotle | Ancient Greek metaphysicians,Ancient literary critics,Ancient Greek mathematicians,Peripatetic philosophers,Ancient Greek political philosophers,Natural philosophers,Philosophers of culture,Social critics,Ancient Greek biologists,Greek male writers,Ancient Greek philosophers of mind,Aristotelianism,Metic philosophers in Classical Athens,Social commentators,Western philosophy,Political philosophers,Irony theorists,Philosophers of law,Ancient Greek ethicists,Ethicists,Metaphysicians,Epistemologists,Philosophy writers,Logicians,Philosophers of education,Virtue ethics,Philosophers of logic,Ancient Greek physicists,Ancient Greek philosophers of language,Philosophy academics,Founders of philosophical traditions,Critical thinking,Social philosophers,Moral philosophers,Virtue ethicists,Western culture,4th-century BC philosophers,Aristotle,Philosophers of ethics and morality,322 BC deaths,Humor researchers,Logic,Trope theorists,Academic philosophers,Ancient Stagirites,Philosophers and tutors of Alexander the Great,Attic Greek writers,Ancient Greek metaphilosophers,Cultural critics,Greek meteorologists,Philosophers of literature,Ancient Greek logicians,Philosophers of art,Ancient Greeks in Macedon,Philosophers of technology,Philosophers of science,4th-century BC writers,Cosmologists,Philosophers of love,384 BC births,Rhetoric theorists,Acting theorists,Virtue,Philosophical logic,Philosophers of ancient Chalcidice,Philosophers of mind,Aristotelian philosophers,Ancient Greek epistemologists,Metaphilosophers |
308-29 | Aristotle
Section::::Practical philosophy.:Just war theory.
Aristotelian just war theory is not well regarded in the present day, especially his view that warfare was justified to enslave "natural slaves". In Aristotelian philosophy, the abolition of what he considers "natural slavery" would undermine civic freedom. The pursuit of freedom is inseparable from pursuing mastery over "those who deserve to be slaves". According to "The Cambridge Companion to Aristotle's Politics" the targets of this aggressive warfare were non-Greeks, noting Aristotle's view that "our poets say 'it is proper for Greeks to rule non-Greeks'".
Aristotle generally has a favorable opinion of war, extolling it as a chance for virtue and writing that "the leisure that accompanies peace" tends to make people "arrogant". War to "avoid becoming enslaved to others" is justified as self-defense. He writes that war "compels people to be just and temperate", however, in order to be just "war must be chosen for the sake of peace" (with the exception of wars of aggression discussed above).
section:practic :practicphilosophi philosophiwar wartheori theoriaristotelian aristotelianwar wartheori theoriwell wellregard regardpresent presentday dayespeci especiview viewwarfar warfarjustifi justifienslav enslav`` ``natur naturslave slave'' ''aristotelian aristotelianphilosophi philosophiabolit abolitconsid consid`` ``natur naturslaveri slaveri'' ''would wouldundermin undermincivic civicfreedom freedompursuit pursuitfreedom freedominsepar inseparpursu pursumasteri masteri`` ``deserv deservslave slave'' ''accord accord`` ``cambridg cambridgcompanion companionaristotl aristotl's 'spolit polit'' ''target targetaggress aggresswarfar warfarnon-greek non-greeknote notearistotl aristotl's 'sview view`` ``poet poetsay sayit itproper propergreek greekrule rulenon-greek non-greek'' ''aristotl aristotlgeneral generalfavor favoropinion opinionwar warextol extolchanc chancvirtu virtuwrite write`` ``leisur leisuraccompani accompanipeac peac'' ''tend tendmake makepeopl peopl`` ``arrog arrog'' ''war war`` ``avoid avoidbecom becomenslav enslavother other'' ''justifi justifiself-defens self-defenswrite writewar war`` ``compel compelpeopl peopltemper temper'' ''howev howevorder order`` ``war warmust mustchosen chosensake sakepeac peac'' ''except exceptwar waraggress aggressdiscuss | 308 | Aristotle | Ancient Greek metaphysicians,Ancient literary critics,Ancient Greek mathematicians,Peripatetic philosophers,Ancient Greek political philosophers,Natural philosophers,Philosophers of culture,Social critics,Ancient Greek biologists,Greek male writers,Ancient Greek philosophers of mind,Aristotelianism,Metic philosophers in Classical Athens,Social commentators,Western philosophy,Political philosophers,Irony theorists,Philosophers of law,Ancient Greek ethicists,Ethicists,Metaphysicians,Epistemologists,Philosophy writers,Logicians,Philosophers of education,Virtue ethics,Philosophers of logic,Ancient Greek physicists,Ancient Greek philosophers of language,Philosophy academics,Founders of philosophical traditions,Critical thinking,Social philosophers,Moral philosophers,Virtue ethicists,Western culture,4th-century BC philosophers,Aristotle,Philosophers of ethics and morality,322 BC deaths,Humor researchers,Logic,Trope theorists,Academic philosophers,Ancient Stagirites,Philosophers and tutors of Alexander the Great,Attic Greek writers,Ancient Greek metaphilosophers,Cultural critics,Greek meteorologists,Philosophers of literature,Ancient Greek logicians,Philosophers of art,Ancient Greeks in Macedon,Philosophers of technology,Philosophers of science,4th-century BC writers,Cosmologists,Philosophers of love,384 BC births,Rhetoric theorists,Acting theorists,Virtue,Philosophical logic,Philosophers of ancient Chalcidice,Philosophers of mind,Aristotelian philosophers,Ancient Greek epistemologists,Metaphilosophers |
308-30 | Aristotle
Section::::Practical philosophy.:Ethics.
Aristotle considered ethics to be a practical rather than theoretical study, i.e., one aimed at becoming good and doing good rather than knowing for its own sake. He wrote several treatises on ethics, including most notably, the "Nicomachean Ethics".
Aristotle taught that virtue has to do with the proper function ("ergon") of a thing. An eye is only a good eye in so much as it can see, because the proper function of an eye is sight. Aristotle reasoned that humans must have a function specific to humans, and that this function must be an activity of the "psuchē" ("soul") in accordance with reason ("logos"). Aristotle identified such an optimum activity (the virtuous mean, between the accompanying vices of excess or deficiency) of the soul as the aim of all human deliberate action, "eudaimonia", generally translated as "happiness" or sometimes "well being". To have the potential of ever being happy in this way necessarily requires a good character ("ēthikē" "aretē"), often translated as moral or ethical virtue or excellence.
Aristotle taught that to achieve a virtuous and potentially happy character requires a first stage of having the fortune to be habituated not deliberately, but by teachers, and experience, leading to a later stage in which one consciously chooses to do the best things. When the best people come to live life this way their practical wisdom ("phronesis") and their intellect ("nous") can develop with each other towards the highest possible human virtue, the wisdom of an accomplished theoretical or speculative thinker, or in other words, a philosopher.
section:practic :practicphilosophy. philosophy.ethic ethicaristotl aristotlconsid considethic ethicpractic practicrather rathertheoret theoretstudi studii.e. i.e.one oneaim aimbecom becomgood goodgood goodrather ratherknow knowsake sakewrote wrotesever severtreatis treatisethic ethicinclud includnotabl notabl`` ``nicomachean nicomacheanethic ethic'' ''aristotl aristotltaught taughtvirtu virtuproper properfunction function`` ``ergon ergon'' ''thing thingeye eyegood goodeye eyemuch muchsee seeproper properfunction functioneye eyesight sightaristotl aristotlreason reasonhuman humanmust mustfunction functionspecif specifhuman humanfunction functionmust mustactiv activ`` ``psuchē psuchē'' ''`` ``soul soul'' ''accord accordreason reason`` ``logo logo'' ''aristotl aristotlidentifi identifioptimum optimumactiv activvirtuous virtuousmean meanaccompani accompanivice viceexcess excessdefici deficisoul soulaim aimhuman humandeliber deliberaction action`` ``eudaimonia eudaimonia'' ''general generaltranslat translat`` ``happi happi'' ''sometim sometim`` ``well well'' ''potenti potentiever everhappi happiway waynecessarili necessarilirequir requirgood goodcharact charact`` ``ēthikē ēthikē'' ''`` ``aretē aretē'' ''often oftentranslat translatmoral moralethic ethicvirtu virtuexcel excelaristotl aristotltaught taughtachiev achievvirtuous virtuouspotenti potentihappi happicharact charactrequir requirfirst firststage stagefortun fortunhabitu habitudeliber deliberteacher teacherexperi experilead leadlater laterstage stageone oneconscious consciouschoos choosbest bestthing thingbest bestpeopl peoplcome comelive livelife lifeway waypractic practicwisdom wisdom`` ``phronesi phronesi'' ''intellect intellect`` ``nous nous'' ''develop developtoward towardhighest highestpossibl possiblhuman humanvirtu virtuwisdom wisdomaccomplish accomplishtheoret theoretspecul speculthinker thinkerword wordphilosoph | 308 | Aristotle | Ancient Greek metaphysicians,Ancient literary critics,Ancient Greek mathematicians,Peripatetic philosophers,Ancient Greek political philosophers,Natural philosophers,Philosophers of culture,Social critics,Ancient Greek biologists,Greek male writers,Ancient Greek philosophers of mind,Aristotelianism,Metic philosophers in Classical Athens,Social commentators,Western philosophy,Political philosophers,Irony theorists,Philosophers of law,Ancient Greek ethicists,Ethicists,Metaphysicians,Epistemologists,Philosophy writers,Logicians,Philosophers of education,Virtue ethics,Philosophers of logic,Ancient Greek physicists,Ancient Greek philosophers of language,Philosophy academics,Founders of philosophical traditions,Critical thinking,Social philosophers,Moral philosophers,Virtue ethicists,Western culture,4th-century BC philosophers,Aristotle,Philosophers of ethics and morality,322 BC deaths,Humor researchers,Logic,Trope theorists,Academic philosophers,Ancient Stagirites,Philosophers and tutors of Alexander the Great,Attic Greek writers,Ancient Greek metaphilosophers,Cultural critics,Greek meteorologists,Philosophers of literature,Ancient Greek logicians,Philosophers of art,Ancient Greeks in Macedon,Philosophers of technology,Philosophers of science,4th-century BC writers,Cosmologists,Philosophers of love,384 BC births,Rhetoric theorists,Acting theorists,Virtue,Philosophical logic,Philosophers of ancient Chalcidice,Philosophers of mind,Aristotelian philosophers,Ancient Greek epistemologists,Metaphilosophers |
308-31 | Aristotle
Section::::Practical philosophy.:Politics.
In addition to his works on ethics, which address the individual, Aristotle addressed the city in his work titled "Politics". Aristotle considered the city to be a natural community. Moreover, he considered the city to be prior in importance to the family which in turn is prior to the individual, "for the whole must of necessity be prior to the part". He also famously stated that "man is by nature a political animal" and also arguing that humanity's defining factor among others in the animal kingdom is its rationality. Aristotle conceived of politics as being like an organism rather than like a machine, and as a collection of parts none of which can exist without the others. Aristotle's conception of the city is organic, and he is considered one of the first to conceive of the city in this manner.
The common modern understanding of a political community as a modern state is quite different from Aristotle's understanding. Although he was aware of the existence and potential of larger empires, the natural community according to Aristotle was the city ("polis") which functions as a political "community" or "partnership" ("koinōnia"). The aim of the city is not just to avoid injustice or for economic stability, but rather to allow at least some citizens the possibility to live a good life, and to perform beautiful acts: "The political partnership must be regarded, therefore, as being for the sake of noble actions, not for the sake of living together." This is distinguished from modern approaches, beginning with social contract theory, according to which individuals leave the state of nature because of "fear of violent death" or its "inconveniences."
In "Protrepticus", the character 'Aristotle' states:
section:practic :practicphilosophy. philosophy.polit politaddit additwork workethic ethicaddress addressindividu individuaristotl aristotladdress addressciti citiwork worktitl titl`` ``polit polit'' ''aristotl aristotlconsid considciti citinatur naturcommuniti communitimoreov moreovconsid considciti citiprior priorimport importfamili familiturn turnprior priorindividu individu`` ``whole wholemust mustnecess necessprior priorpart part'' ''also alsofamous famousstate state`` ``man mannatur naturpolit politanim anim'' ''also alsoargu arguhuman human's 'sdefin definfactor factoramong amongother otheranim animkingdom kingdomration rationaristotl aristotlconceiv conceivpolit politlike likeorgan organrather ratherlike likemachin machincollect collectpart partnone noneexist existwithout withoutother otheraristotl aristotl's 'sconcept conceptciti citiorgan organconsid considone onefirst firstconceiv conceivciti citimanner mannercommon commonmodern modernunderstand understandpolit politcommuniti communitimodern modernstate statequit quitdiffer differaristotl aristotl's 'sunderstand understandalthough althoughawar awarexist existpotenti potentilarger largerempir empirnatur naturcommuniti communitiaccord accordaristotl aristotlciti citi`` ``poli poli'' ''function functionpolit polit`` ``communiti communiti'' ''`` ``partnership partnership'' ''`` ``koinōnia koinōnia'' ''aim aimciti citiavoid avoidinjustic injusticeconom economstabil stabilrather ratherallow allowleast leastcitizen citizenpossibl possibllive livegood goodlife lifeperform performbeauti beautiact act`` ``polit politpartnership partnershipmust mustregard regardtherefor thereforsake sakenobl noblaction actionsake sakelive livetogeth togeth'' ''distinguish distinguishmodern modernapproach approachbegin beginsocial socialcontract contracttheori theoriaccord accordindividu individuleav leavstate statenatur natur`` ``fear fearviolent violentdeath death'' ''`` ``inconveni inconveni'' ''`` ``protrepticus protrepticus'' ''charact charactaristotl aristotlstate | 308 | Aristotle | Ancient Greek metaphysicians,Ancient literary critics,Ancient Greek mathematicians,Peripatetic philosophers,Ancient Greek political philosophers,Natural philosophers,Philosophers of culture,Social critics,Ancient Greek biologists,Greek male writers,Ancient Greek philosophers of mind,Aristotelianism,Metic philosophers in Classical Athens,Social commentators,Western philosophy,Political philosophers,Irony theorists,Philosophers of law,Ancient Greek ethicists,Ethicists,Metaphysicians,Epistemologists,Philosophy writers,Logicians,Philosophers of education,Virtue ethics,Philosophers of logic,Ancient Greek physicists,Ancient Greek philosophers of language,Philosophy academics,Founders of philosophical traditions,Critical thinking,Social philosophers,Moral philosophers,Virtue ethicists,Western culture,4th-century BC philosophers,Aristotle,Philosophers of ethics and morality,322 BC deaths,Humor researchers,Logic,Trope theorists,Academic philosophers,Ancient Stagirites,Philosophers and tutors of Alexander the Great,Attic Greek writers,Ancient Greek metaphilosophers,Cultural critics,Greek meteorologists,Philosophers of literature,Ancient Greek logicians,Philosophers of art,Ancient Greeks in Macedon,Philosophers of technology,Philosophers of science,4th-century BC writers,Cosmologists,Philosophers of love,384 BC births,Rhetoric theorists,Acting theorists,Virtue,Philosophical logic,Philosophers of ancient Chalcidice,Philosophers of mind,Aristotelian philosophers,Ancient Greek epistemologists,Metaphilosophers |
308-32 | Aristotle
Section::::Practical philosophy.:Economics.
Aristotle made substantial contributions to economic thought, especially to thought in the Middle Ages. In "Politics", Aristotle addresses the city, property, and trade. His response to criticisms of private property, in Lionel Robbins's view, anticipated later proponents of private property among philosophers and economists, as it related to the overall utility of social arrangements. Aristotle believed that although communal arrangements may seem beneficial to society, and that although private property is often blamed for social strife, such evils in fact come from human nature. In "Politics", Aristotle offers one of the earliest accounts of the origin of money. Money came into use because people became dependent on one another, importing what they needed and exporting the surplus. For the sake of convenience, people then agreed to deal in something that is intrinsically useful and easily applicable, such as iron or silver.
Aristotle's discussions on retail and interest was a major influence on economic thought in the Middle Ages. He had a low opinion of retail, believing that contrary to using money to procure things one needs in managing the household, retail trade seeks to make a profit. It thus uses goods as a means to an end, rather than as an end unto itself. He believed that retail trade was in this way unnatural. Similarly, Aristotle considered making a profit through interest unnatural, as it makes a gain out of the money itself, and not from its use.
Aristotle gave a summary of the function of money that was perhaps remarkably precocious for his time. He wrote that because it is impossible to determine the value of every good through a count of the number of other goods it is worth, the necessity arises of a single universal standard of measurement. Money thus allows for the association of different goods and makes them "commensurable". He goes to on state that money is also useful for future exchange, making it a sort of security. That is, "if we do not want a thing now, we shall be able to get it when we do want it".
section:practic :practicphilosophy. philosophy.econom economaristotl aristotlmade madesubstanti substanticontribut contributeconom economthought thoughtespeci especithought thoughtmiddl middlage age`` ``polit polit'' ''aristotl aristotladdress addressciti citiproperti propertitrade traderespons responscritic criticprivat privatproperti propertilionel lionelrobbin robbin's 'sview viewanticip anticiplater laterpropon proponprivat privatproperti propertiamong amongphilosoph philosopheconomist economistrelat relatoveral overalutil utilsocial socialarrang arrangaristotl aristotlbeliev believalthough althoughcommunal communalarrang arrangmay mayseem seembenefici beneficisocieti societialthough althoughprivat privatproperti propertioften oftenblame blamesocial socialstrife strifeevil evilfact factcome comehuman humannatur natur`` ``polit polit'' ''aristotl aristotloffer offerone oneearliest earliestaccount accountorigin originmoney moneymoney moneycame cameuse usepeopl peoplbecam becamdepend dependone oneanoth anothimport importneed needexport exportsurplus surplussake sakeconveni convenipeopl peoplagre agredeal dealsometh somethintrins intrinsuse useeasili easiliapplic appliciron ironsilver silveraristotl aristotl's 'sdiscuss discussretail retailinterest interestmajor majorinfluenc influenceconom economthought thoughtmiddl middlage agelow lowopinion opinionretail retailbeliev believcontrari contrariuse usemoney moneyprocur procurthing thingone oneneed needmanag managhousehold householdretail retailtrade tradeseek seekmake makeprofit profitthus thususe usegood goodmean meanend endrather ratherend endunto untobeliev believretail retailtrade tradeway wayunnatur unnatursimilar similararistotl aristotlconsid considmake makeprofit profitinterest interestunnatur unnaturmake makegain gainmoney moneyuse usearistotl aristotlgave gavesummari summarifunction functionmoney moneyperhap perhapremark remarkprecoci precocitime timewrote wroteimposs impossdetermin determinvalu valueveri everigood goodcount countnumber numbergood goodworth worthnecess necessaris arissingl singlunivers universstandard standardmeasur measurmoney moneythus thusallow allowassoci associdiffer differgood goodmake make`` ``commensur commensur'' ''goe goestate statemoney moneyalso alsouse usefutur futurexchang exchangmake makesort sortsecur secur`` ``want wantthing thingshall shallabl ablget getwant want'' | 308 | Aristotle | Ancient Greek metaphysicians,Ancient literary critics,Ancient Greek mathematicians,Peripatetic philosophers,Ancient Greek political philosophers,Natural philosophers,Philosophers of culture,Social critics,Ancient Greek biologists,Greek male writers,Ancient Greek philosophers of mind,Aristotelianism,Metic philosophers in Classical Athens,Social commentators,Western philosophy,Political philosophers,Irony theorists,Philosophers of law,Ancient Greek ethicists,Ethicists,Metaphysicians,Epistemologists,Philosophy writers,Logicians,Philosophers of education,Virtue ethics,Philosophers of logic,Ancient Greek physicists,Ancient Greek philosophers of language,Philosophy academics,Founders of philosophical traditions,Critical thinking,Social philosophers,Moral philosophers,Virtue ethicists,Western culture,4th-century BC philosophers,Aristotle,Philosophers of ethics and morality,322 BC deaths,Humor researchers,Logic,Trope theorists,Academic philosophers,Ancient Stagirites,Philosophers and tutors of Alexander the Great,Attic Greek writers,Ancient Greek metaphilosophers,Cultural critics,Greek meteorologists,Philosophers of literature,Ancient Greek logicians,Philosophers of art,Ancient Greeks in Macedon,Philosophers of technology,Philosophers of science,4th-century BC writers,Cosmologists,Philosophers of love,384 BC births,Rhetoric theorists,Acting theorists,Virtue,Philosophical logic,Philosophers of ancient Chalcidice,Philosophers of mind,Aristotelian philosophers,Ancient Greek epistemologists,Metaphilosophers |
308-33 | Aristotle
Section::::Practical philosophy.:Rhetoric and poetics.
Aristotle's "Rhetoric" proposes that a speaker can use three basic kinds of appeals to persuade his audience: "ethos" (an appeal to the speaker's character), "pathos" (an appeal to the audience's emotion), and "logos" (an appeal to logical reasoning). He also categorises rhetoric into three genres: epideictic (ceremonial speeches dealing with praise or blame), forensic (judicial speeches over guilt or innocence), and deliberative (speeches calling on an audience to make a decision on an issue). Aristotle also outlines two kinds of rhetorical proofs: "enthymeme" (proof by syllogism) and "paradeigma" (proof by example).
Aristotle writes in his "Poetics" that epic poetry, tragedy, comedy, dithyrambic poetry, painting, sculpture, music, and dance are all fundamentally acts of "mimesis" ("imitation"), each varying in imitation by medium, object, and manner. He applies the term "mimesis" both as a property of a work of art and also as the product of the artist's intention and contends that the audience's realisation of the "mimesis" is vital to understanding the work itself. Aristotle states that "mimesis" is a natural instinct of humanity that separates humans from animals and that all human artistry "follows the pattern of nature". Because of this, Aristotle believed that each of the mimetic arts possesses what Stephen Halliwell calls "highly structured procedures for the achievement of their purposes." For example, music imitates with the media of rhythm and harmony, whereas dance imitates with rhythm alone, and poetry with language. The forms also differ in their object of imitation. Comedy, for instance, is a dramatic imitation of men worse than average; whereas tragedy imitates men slightly better than average. Lastly, the forms differ in their manner of imitation – through narrative or character, through change or no change, and through drama or no drama.
While it is believed that Aristotle's "Poetics" originally comprised two books – one on comedy and one on tragedy – only the portion that focuses on tragedy has survived. Aristotle taught that tragedy is composed of six elements: plot-structure, character, style, thought, spectacle, and lyric poetry. The characters in a tragedy are merely a means of driving the story; and the plot, not the characters, is the chief focus of tragedy. Tragedy is the imitation of action arousing pity and fear, and is meant to effect the catharsis of those same emotions. Aristotle concludes "Poetics" with a discussion on which, if either, is superior: epic or tragic mimesis. He suggests that because tragedy possesses all the attributes of an epic, possibly possesses additional attributes such as spectacle and music, is more unified, and achieves the aim of its mimesis in shorter scope, it can be considered superior to epic. Aristotle was a keen systematic collector of riddles, folklore, and proverbs; he and his school had a special interest in the riddles of the Delphic Oracle and studied the fables of Aesop.
section:practic :practicphilosophi philosophirhetor rhetorpoetic poeticaristotl aristotl's 's`` ``rhetor rhetor'' ''propos proposspeaker speakeruse usethree threebasic basickind kindappeal appealpersuad persuadaudienc audienc`` ``etho etho'' ''appeal appealspeaker speaker's 'scharact charact`` ``patho patho'' ''appeal appealaudienc audienc's 'semot emot`` ``logo logo'' ''appeal appeallogic logicreason reasonalso alsocategoris categorisrhetor rhetorthree threegenr genrepideict epideictceremoni ceremonispeech speechdeal dealprais praisblame blameforens forensjudici judicispeech speechguilt guiltinnoc innocdelib delibspeech speechcall callaudienc audiencmake makedecis decisissu issuaristotl aristotlalso alsooutlin outlintwo twokind kindrhetor rhetorproof proof`` ``enthymem enthymem'' ''proof proofsyllog syllog`` ``paradeigma paradeigma'' ''proof proofexampl examplaristotl aristotlwrite write`` ``poetic poetic'' ''epic epicpoetri poetritragedi tragedicomedi comedidithyramb dithyrambpoetri poetripaint paintsculptur sculpturmusic musicdanc dancfundament fundamentact act`` ``mimesi mimesi'' ''`` ``imit imit'' ''vari variimit imitmedium mediumobject objectmanner mannerappli appliterm term`` ``mimesi mimesi'' ''properti propertiwork workart artalso alsoproduct productartist artist's 'sintent intentcontend contendaudienc audienc's 'srealis realis`` ``mimesi mimesi'' ''vital vitalunderstand understandwork workaristotl aristotlstate state`` ``mimesi mimesi'' ''natur naturinstinct instincthuman humansepar separhuman humananim animhuman humanartistri artistri`` ``follow followpattern patternnatur natur'' ''aristotl aristotlbeliev believmimet mimetart artpossess possessstephen stephenhalliwel halliwelcall call`` ``high highstructur structurprocedur procedurachiev achievpurpos purpos'' ''exampl examplmusic musicimit imitmedia mediarhythm rhythmharmoni harmoniwherea whereadanc dancimit imitrhythm rhythmalon alonpoetri poetrilanguag languagform formalso alsodiffer differobject objectimit imitcomedi comediinstanc instancdramat dramatimit imitmen menwors worsaverag averagwherea whereatragedi tragediimit imitmen menslight slightbetter betteraverag averaglast lastform formdiffer differmanner mannerimit imit– –narrat narratcharact charactchang changchang changdrama dramadrama dramabeliev believaristotl aristotl's 's`` ``poetic poetic'' ''origin origincompris compristwo twobook book– –one onecomedi comedione onetragedi tragedi– –portion portionfocus focustragedi tragedisurviv survivaristotl aristotltaught taughttragedi tragedicompos compossix sixelement elementplot-structur plot-structurcharact charactstyle stylethought thoughtspectacl spectacllyric lyricpoetri poetricharact characttragedi tragedimere meremean meandrive drivestori storiplot plotcharact charactchief chieffocus focustragedi trageditragedi tragediimit imitaction actionarous arouspiti pitifear fearmeant meanteffect effectcatharsi catharsiemot emotaristotl aristotlconclud conclud`` ``poetic poetic'' ''discuss discusseither eithersuperior superiorepic epictragic tragicmimesi mimesisuggest suggesttragedi tragedipossess possessattribut attributepic epicpossibl possiblpossess possessaddit additattribut attributspectacl spectaclmusic musicunifi unifiachiev achievaim aimmimesi mimesishorter shorterscope scopeconsid considsuperior superiorepic epicaristotl aristotlkeen keensystemat systematcollector collectorriddl riddlfolklor folklorproverb proverbschool schoolspecial specialinterest interestriddl riddldelphic delphicoracl oraclstudi studifabl fablaesop | 308 | Aristotle | Ancient Greek metaphysicians,Ancient literary critics,Ancient Greek mathematicians,Peripatetic philosophers,Ancient Greek political philosophers,Natural philosophers,Philosophers of culture,Social critics,Ancient Greek biologists,Greek male writers,Ancient Greek philosophers of mind,Aristotelianism,Metic philosophers in Classical Athens,Social commentators,Western philosophy,Political philosophers,Irony theorists,Philosophers of law,Ancient Greek ethicists,Ethicists,Metaphysicians,Epistemologists,Philosophy writers,Logicians,Philosophers of education,Virtue ethics,Philosophers of logic,Ancient Greek physicists,Ancient Greek philosophers of language,Philosophy academics,Founders of philosophical traditions,Critical thinking,Social philosophers,Moral philosophers,Virtue ethicists,Western culture,4th-century BC philosophers,Aristotle,Philosophers of ethics and morality,322 BC deaths,Humor researchers,Logic,Trope theorists,Academic philosophers,Ancient Stagirites,Philosophers and tutors of Alexander the Great,Attic Greek writers,Ancient Greek metaphilosophers,Cultural critics,Greek meteorologists,Philosophers of literature,Ancient Greek logicians,Philosophers of art,Ancient Greeks in Macedon,Philosophers of technology,Philosophers of science,4th-century BC writers,Cosmologists,Philosophers of love,384 BC births,Rhetoric theorists,Acting theorists,Virtue,Philosophical logic,Philosophers of ancient Chalcidice,Philosophers of mind,Aristotelian philosophers,Ancient Greek epistemologists,Metaphilosophers |
308-34 | Aristotle
Section::::Practical philosophy.:Views on women.
Aristotle's analysis of procreation describes an active, ensouling masculine element bringing life to an inert, passive female element. On this ground, proponents of feminist metaphysics have accused Aristotle of misogyny and sexism. However, Aristotle gave equal weight to women's happiness as he did to men's, and commented in his "Rhetoric" that the things that lead to happiness need to be in women as well as men.
section:practic :practicphilosophi philosophiview viewwomen womenaristotl aristotl's 'sanalysi analysiprocreat procreatdescrib describactiv activensoul ensoulmasculin masculinelement elementbring bringlife lifeinert inertpassiv passivfemal femalelement elementground groundpropon proponfeminist feministmetaphys metaphysaccus accusaristotl aristotlmisogyni misogynisexism sexismhowev howevaristotl aristotlgave gaveequal equalweight weightwomen women's 'shappi happimen men's 'scomment comment`` ``rhetor rhetor'' ''thing thinglead leadhappi happineed needwomen womenwell wellmen | 308 | Aristotle | Ancient Greek metaphysicians,Ancient literary critics,Ancient Greek mathematicians,Peripatetic philosophers,Ancient Greek political philosophers,Natural philosophers,Philosophers of culture,Social critics,Ancient Greek biologists,Greek male writers,Ancient Greek philosophers of mind,Aristotelianism,Metic philosophers in Classical Athens,Social commentators,Western philosophy,Political philosophers,Irony theorists,Philosophers of law,Ancient Greek ethicists,Ethicists,Metaphysicians,Epistemologists,Philosophy writers,Logicians,Philosophers of education,Virtue ethics,Philosophers of logic,Ancient Greek physicists,Ancient Greek philosophers of language,Philosophy academics,Founders of philosophical traditions,Critical thinking,Social philosophers,Moral philosophers,Virtue ethicists,Western culture,4th-century BC philosophers,Aristotle,Philosophers of ethics and morality,322 BC deaths,Humor researchers,Logic,Trope theorists,Academic philosophers,Ancient Stagirites,Philosophers and tutors of Alexander the Great,Attic Greek writers,Ancient Greek metaphilosophers,Cultural critics,Greek meteorologists,Philosophers of literature,Ancient Greek logicians,Philosophers of art,Ancient Greeks in Macedon,Philosophers of technology,Philosophers of science,4th-century BC writers,Cosmologists,Philosophers of love,384 BC births,Rhetoric theorists,Acting theorists,Virtue,Philosophical logic,Philosophers of ancient Chalcidice,Philosophers of mind,Aristotelian philosophers,Ancient Greek epistemologists,Metaphilosophers |
308-35 | Aristotle
Section::::Influence.
More than 2300 years after his death, Aristotle remains one of the most influential people who ever lived. He contributed to almost every field of human knowledge then in existence, and he was the founder of many new fields. According to the philosopher Bryan Magee, "it is doubtful whether any human being has ever known as much as he did". Among countless other achievements, Aristotle was the founder of formal logic, pioneered the study of zoology, and left every future scientist and philosopher in his debt through his contributions to the scientific method. Taneli Kukkonen, writing in "The Classical Tradition", observes that his achievement in founding two sciences is unmatched, and his reach in influencing "every branch of intellectual enterprise" including Western ethical and political theory, theology, rhetoric and literary analysis is equally long. As a result, Kukkonen argues, any analysis of reality today "will almost certainly carry Aristotelian overtones ... evidence of an exceptionally forceful mind." Jonathan Barnes wrote that "an account of Aristotle's intellectual afterlife would be little less than a history of European thought".
section:influenc :influenc2300 2300year yeardeath deatharistotl aristotlremain remainone oneinfluenti influentipeopl peoplever everlive livecontribut contributalmost almosteveri everifield fieldhuman humanknowledg knowledgexist existfounder foundermani maninew newfield fieldaccord accordphilosoph philosophbryan bryanmage mage`` ``doubt doubtwhether whetherhuman humanever everknown knownmuch much'' ''among amongcountless countlessachiev achievaristotl aristotlfounder founderformal formallogic logicpioneer pioneerstudi studizoolog zoologleft lefteveri everifutur futurscientist scientistphilosoph philosophdebt debtcontribut contributscientif scientifmethod methodtane tanekukkonen kukkonenwrite write`` ``classic classictradit tradit'' ''observ observachiev achievfound foundtwo twoscienc sciencunmatch unmatchreach reachinfluenc influenc`` ``everi everibranch branchintellectu intellectuenterpris enterpris'' ''includ includwestern westernethic ethicpolit polittheori theoritheolog theologrhetor rhetorliterari literarianalysi analysiequal equallong longresult resultkukkonen kukkonenargu arguanalysi analysirealiti realititoday today`` ``almost almostcertain certaincarri carriaristotelian aristotelianoverton overton... ...evid evidexcept exceptforc forcmind mind'' ''jonathan jonathanbarn barnwrote wrote`` ``account accountaristotl aristotl's 'sintellectu intellectuafterlif afterlifwould wouldlittl littlless lesshistori historieuropean europeanthought thought'' | 308 | Aristotle | Ancient Greek metaphysicians,Ancient literary critics,Ancient Greek mathematicians,Peripatetic philosophers,Ancient Greek political philosophers,Natural philosophers,Philosophers of culture,Social critics,Ancient Greek biologists,Greek male writers,Ancient Greek philosophers of mind,Aristotelianism,Metic philosophers in Classical Athens,Social commentators,Western philosophy,Political philosophers,Irony theorists,Philosophers of law,Ancient Greek ethicists,Ethicists,Metaphysicians,Epistemologists,Philosophy writers,Logicians,Philosophers of education,Virtue ethics,Philosophers of logic,Ancient Greek physicists,Ancient Greek philosophers of language,Philosophy academics,Founders of philosophical traditions,Critical thinking,Social philosophers,Moral philosophers,Virtue ethicists,Western culture,4th-century BC philosophers,Aristotle,Philosophers of ethics and morality,322 BC deaths,Humor researchers,Logic,Trope theorists,Academic philosophers,Ancient Stagirites,Philosophers and tutors of Alexander the Great,Attic Greek writers,Ancient Greek metaphilosophers,Cultural critics,Greek meteorologists,Philosophers of literature,Ancient Greek logicians,Philosophers of art,Ancient Greeks in Macedon,Philosophers of technology,Philosophers of science,4th-century BC writers,Cosmologists,Philosophers of love,384 BC births,Rhetoric theorists,Acting theorists,Virtue,Philosophical logic,Philosophers of ancient Chalcidice,Philosophers of mind,Aristotelian philosophers,Ancient Greek epistemologists,Metaphilosophers |
308-36 | Aristotle
Section::::Influence.:On his successor, Theophrastus.
Aristotle's pupil and successor, Theophrastus, wrote the "History of Plants", a pioneering work in botany. Some of his technical terms remain in use, such as carpel from "carpos", fruit, and pericarp, from "pericarpion", seed chamber.
Theophrastus was much less concerned with formal causes than Aristotle was, instead pragmatically describing how plants functioned.
section:influenc :influencsuccessor successortheophrastus theophrastusaristotl aristotl's 'spupil pupilsuccessor successortheophrastus theophrastuswrote wrote`` ``histori historiplant plant'' ''pioneer pioneerwork workbotani botanitechnic technicterm termremain remainuse usecarpel carpel`` ``carpo carpo'' ''fruit fruitpericarp pericarp`` ``pericarpion pericarpion'' ''seed seedchamber chambertheophrastus theophrastusmuch muchless lessconcern concernformal formalcaus causaristotl aristotlinstead insteadpragmat pragmatdescrib describplant plantfunction | 308 | Aristotle | Ancient Greek metaphysicians,Ancient literary critics,Ancient Greek mathematicians,Peripatetic philosophers,Ancient Greek political philosophers,Natural philosophers,Philosophers of culture,Social critics,Ancient Greek biologists,Greek male writers,Ancient Greek philosophers of mind,Aristotelianism,Metic philosophers in Classical Athens,Social commentators,Western philosophy,Political philosophers,Irony theorists,Philosophers of law,Ancient Greek ethicists,Ethicists,Metaphysicians,Epistemologists,Philosophy writers,Logicians,Philosophers of education,Virtue ethics,Philosophers of logic,Ancient Greek physicists,Ancient Greek philosophers of language,Philosophy academics,Founders of philosophical traditions,Critical thinking,Social philosophers,Moral philosophers,Virtue ethicists,Western culture,4th-century BC philosophers,Aristotle,Philosophers of ethics and morality,322 BC deaths,Humor researchers,Logic,Trope theorists,Academic philosophers,Ancient Stagirites,Philosophers and tutors of Alexander the Great,Attic Greek writers,Ancient Greek metaphilosophers,Cultural critics,Greek meteorologists,Philosophers of literature,Ancient Greek logicians,Philosophers of art,Ancient Greeks in Macedon,Philosophers of technology,Philosophers of science,4th-century BC writers,Cosmologists,Philosophers of love,384 BC births,Rhetoric theorists,Acting theorists,Virtue,Philosophical logic,Philosophers of ancient Chalcidice,Philosophers of mind,Aristotelian philosophers,Ancient Greek epistemologists,Metaphilosophers |
308-37 | Aristotle
Section::::Influence.:On later Greek philosophers.
The immediate influence of Aristotle's work was felt as the Lyceum grew into the Peripatetic school. Aristotle's notable students included Aristoxenus, Dicaearchus, Demetrius of Phalerum, Eudemos of Rhodes, Harpalus, Hephaestion, Mnason of Phocis, Nicomachus, and Theophrastus. Aristotle's influence over Alexander the Great is seen in the latter's bringing with him on his expedition a host of zoologists, botanists, and researchers. He had also learned a great deal about Persian customs and traditions from his teacher. Although his respect for Aristotle was diminished as his travels made it clear that much of Aristotle's geography was clearly wrong, when the old philosopher released his works to the public, Alexander complained "Thou hast not done well to publish thy acroamatic doctrines; for in what shall I surpass other men if those doctrines wherein I have been trained are to be all men's common property?"
section:influenc :influenclater latergreek greekphilosoph philosophimmedi immediinfluenc influencaristotl aristotl's 'swork workfelt feltlyceum lyceumgrew grewperipatet peripatetschool schoolaristotl aristotl's 'snotabl notablstudent studentinclud includaristoxenus aristoxenusdicaearchus dicaearchusdemetrius demetriusphalerum phalerumeudemo eudemorhode rhodeharpalus harpalushephaest hephaestmnason mnasonphoci phocinicomachus nicomachustheophrastus theophrastusaristotl aristotl's 'sinfluenc influencalexand alexandgreat greatseen seenlatter latter's 'sbring bringexpedit expedithost hostzoologist zoologistbotanist botanistresearch researchalso alsolearn learngreat greatdeal dealpersian persiancustom customtradit traditteacher teacheralthough althoughrespect respectaristotl aristotldiminish diminishtravel travelmade madeclear clearmuch mucharistotl aristotl's 'sgeographi geographiclear clearwrong wrongold oldphilosoph philosophreleas releaswork workpublic publicalexand alexandcomplain complain`` ``thou thouhast hastdone donewell wellpublish publishthi thiacroamat acroamatdoctrin doctrinshall shallsurpass surpassmen mendoctrin doctrinwherein whereintrain trainmen men's 'scommon commonproperti properti'' | 308 | Aristotle | Ancient Greek metaphysicians,Ancient literary critics,Ancient Greek mathematicians,Peripatetic philosophers,Ancient Greek political philosophers,Natural philosophers,Philosophers of culture,Social critics,Ancient Greek biologists,Greek male writers,Ancient Greek philosophers of mind,Aristotelianism,Metic philosophers in Classical Athens,Social commentators,Western philosophy,Political philosophers,Irony theorists,Philosophers of law,Ancient Greek ethicists,Ethicists,Metaphysicians,Epistemologists,Philosophy writers,Logicians,Philosophers of education,Virtue ethics,Philosophers of logic,Ancient Greek physicists,Ancient Greek philosophers of language,Philosophy academics,Founders of philosophical traditions,Critical thinking,Social philosophers,Moral philosophers,Virtue ethicists,Western culture,4th-century BC philosophers,Aristotle,Philosophers of ethics and morality,322 BC deaths,Humor researchers,Logic,Trope theorists,Academic philosophers,Ancient Stagirites,Philosophers and tutors of Alexander the Great,Attic Greek writers,Ancient Greek metaphilosophers,Cultural critics,Greek meteorologists,Philosophers of literature,Ancient Greek logicians,Philosophers of art,Ancient Greeks in Macedon,Philosophers of technology,Philosophers of science,4th-century BC writers,Cosmologists,Philosophers of love,384 BC births,Rhetoric theorists,Acting theorists,Virtue,Philosophical logic,Philosophers of ancient Chalcidice,Philosophers of mind,Aristotelian philosophers,Ancient Greek epistemologists,Metaphilosophers |
308-38 | Aristotle
Section::::Influence.:On Hellenistic science.
After Theophrastus, the Lyceum failed to produce any original work. Though interest in Aristotle's ideas survived, they were generally taken unquestioningly. It is not until the age of Alexandria under the Ptolemies that advances in biology can be again found.
The first medical teacher at Alexandria, Herophilus of Chalcedon, corrected Aristotle, placing intelligence in the brain, and connected the nervous system to motion and sensation. Herophilus also distinguished between veins and arteries, noting that the latter pulse while the former do not. Though a few ancient atomists such as Lucretius challenged the teleological viewpoint of Aristotelian ideas about life, teleology (and after the rise of Christianity, natural theology) would remain central to biological thought essentially until the 18th and 19th centuries. Ernst Mayr states that there was "nothing of any real consequence in biology after Lucretius and Galen until the Renaissance."
section:influenc :influenchellenist hellenistscienc scienctheophrastus theophrastuslyceum lyceumfail failproduc producorigin originwork workthough thoughinterest interestaristotl aristotl's 'sidea ideasurviv survivgeneral generaltaken takenunquest unquestage agealexandria alexandriaptolemi ptolemiadvanc advancbiolog biologfound foundfirst firstmedic medicteacher teacheralexandria alexandriaherophilus herophiluschalcedon chalcedoncorrect correctaristotl aristotlplace placeintellig intelligbrain brainconnect connectnervous nervoussystem systemmotion motionsensat sensatherophilus herophilusalso alsodistinguish distinguishvein veinarteri arterinote notelatter latterpuls pulsformer formerthough thoughancient ancientatomist atomistlucretius lucretiuschalleng challengteleolog teleologviewpoint viewpointaristotelian aristotelianidea idealife lifeteleolog teleologrise risechristian christiannatur naturtheolog theologwould wouldremain remaincentral centralbiolog biologthought thoughtessenti essenti18th 18th19th 19thcenturi centuriernst ernstmayr mayrstate state`` ``noth nothreal realconsequ consequbiolog biologlucretius lucretiusgalen galenrenaiss renaiss'' | 308 | Aristotle | Ancient Greek metaphysicians,Ancient literary critics,Ancient Greek mathematicians,Peripatetic philosophers,Ancient Greek political philosophers,Natural philosophers,Philosophers of culture,Social critics,Ancient Greek biologists,Greek male writers,Ancient Greek philosophers of mind,Aristotelianism,Metic philosophers in Classical Athens,Social commentators,Western philosophy,Political philosophers,Irony theorists,Philosophers of law,Ancient Greek ethicists,Ethicists,Metaphysicians,Epistemologists,Philosophy writers,Logicians,Philosophers of education,Virtue ethics,Philosophers of logic,Ancient Greek physicists,Ancient Greek philosophers of language,Philosophy academics,Founders of philosophical traditions,Critical thinking,Social philosophers,Moral philosophers,Virtue ethicists,Western culture,4th-century BC philosophers,Aristotle,Philosophers of ethics and morality,322 BC deaths,Humor researchers,Logic,Trope theorists,Academic philosophers,Ancient Stagirites,Philosophers and tutors of Alexander the Great,Attic Greek writers,Ancient Greek metaphilosophers,Cultural critics,Greek meteorologists,Philosophers of literature,Ancient Greek logicians,Philosophers of art,Ancient Greeks in Macedon,Philosophers of technology,Philosophers of science,4th-century BC writers,Cosmologists,Philosophers of love,384 BC births,Rhetoric theorists,Acting theorists,Virtue,Philosophical logic,Philosophers of ancient Chalcidice,Philosophers of mind,Aristotelian philosophers,Ancient Greek epistemologists,Metaphilosophers |
308-39 | Aristotle
Section::::Influence.:On Byzantine scholars.
Greek Christian scribes played a crucial role in the preservation of Aristotle by copying all the extant Greek language manuscripts of the corpus. The first Greek Christians to comment extensively on Aristotle were Philoponus, Elias, and David in the sixth century, and Stephen of Alexandria in the early seventh century. John Philoponus stands out for having attempted a fundamental critique of Aristotle's views on the eternity of the world, movement, and other elements of Aristotelian thought. Philoponus questioned Aristotle's teaching of physics, noting its flaws and introducing the theory of impetus to explain his observations.
After a hiatus of several centuries, formal commentary by Eustratius and Michael of Ephesus reappeared in the late eleventh and early twelfth centuries, apparently sponsored by Anna Comnena.
section:influenc :influencbyzantin byzantinscholar scholargreek greekchristian christianscribe scribeplay playcrucial crucialrole rolepreserv preservaristotl aristotlcopi copiextant extantgreek greeklanguag languagmanuscript manuscriptcorpus corpusfirst firstgreek greekchristian christiancomment commentextens extensaristotl aristotlphiloponus philoponuselia eliadavid davidsixth sixthcenturi centuristephen stephenalexandria alexandriaearli earliseventh seventhcenturi centurijohn johnphiloponus philoponusstand standattempt attemptfundament fundamentcritiqu critiquaristotl aristotl's 'sview viewetern eternworld worldmovement movementelement elementaristotelian aristotelianthought thoughtphiloponus philoponusquestion questionaristotl aristotl's 'steach teachphysic physicnote noteflaw flawintroduc introductheori theoriimpetus impetusexplain explainobserv observhiatus hiatussever severcenturi centuriformal formalcommentari commentarieustratius eustratiusmichael michaelephesus ephesusreappear reappearlate lateeleventh eleventhearli earlitwelfth twelfthcenturi centuriappar apparsponsor sponsoranna annacomnena | 308 | Aristotle | Ancient Greek metaphysicians,Ancient literary critics,Ancient Greek mathematicians,Peripatetic philosophers,Ancient Greek political philosophers,Natural philosophers,Philosophers of culture,Social critics,Ancient Greek biologists,Greek male writers,Ancient Greek philosophers of mind,Aristotelianism,Metic philosophers in Classical Athens,Social commentators,Western philosophy,Political philosophers,Irony theorists,Philosophers of law,Ancient Greek ethicists,Ethicists,Metaphysicians,Epistemologists,Philosophy writers,Logicians,Philosophers of education,Virtue ethics,Philosophers of logic,Ancient Greek physicists,Ancient Greek philosophers of language,Philosophy academics,Founders of philosophical traditions,Critical thinking,Social philosophers,Moral philosophers,Virtue ethicists,Western culture,4th-century BC philosophers,Aristotle,Philosophers of ethics and morality,322 BC deaths,Humor researchers,Logic,Trope theorists,Academic philosophers,Ancient Stagirites,Philosophers and tutors of Alexander the Great,Attic Greek writers,Ancient Greek metaphilosophers,Cultural critics,Greek meteorologists,Philosophers of literature,Ancient Greek logicians,Philosophers of art,Ancient Greeks in Macedon,Philosophers of technology,Philosophers of science,4th-century BC writers,Cosmologists,Philosophers of love,384 BC births,Rhetoric theorists,Acting theorists,Virtue,Philosophical logic,Philosophers of ancient Chalcidice,Philosophers of mind,Aristotelian philosophers,Ancient Greek epistemologists,Metaphilosophers |
308-40 | Aristotle
Section::::Influence.:On the medieval Islamic world.
Aristotle was one of the most revered Western thinkers in early Islamic theology. Most of the still extant works of Aristotle, as well as a number of the original Greek commentaries, were translated into Arabic and studied by Muslim philosophers, scientists and scholars. Averroes, Avicenna and Alpharabius, who wrote on Aristotle in great depth, also influenced Thomas Aquinas and other Western Christian scholastic philosophers. Alkindus greatly admired Aristotle's philosophy, and Averroes spoke of Aristotle as the "exemplar" for all future philosophers. Medieval Muslim scholars regularly described Aristotle as the "First Teacher". The title "teacher" was first given to Aristotle by Muslim scholars, and was later used by Western philosophers (as in the famous poem of Dante) who were influenced by the tradition of Islamic philosophy.
section:influenc :influencmediev medievislam islamworld worldaristotl aristotlone onerever reverwestern westernthinker thinkerearli earliislam islamtheolog theologstill stillextant extantwork workaristotl aristotlwell wellnumber numberorigin origingreek greekcommentari commentaritranslat translatarab arabstudi studimuslim muslimphilosoph philosophscientist scientistscholar scholaraverro averroavicenna avicennaalpharabius alpharabiuswrote wrotearistotl aristotlgreat greatdepth depthalso alsoinfluenc influencthoma thomaaquina aquinawestern westernchristian christianscholast scholastphilosoph philosophalkindus alkindusgreat greatadmir admiraristotl aristotl's 'sphilosophi philosophiaverro averrospoke spokearistotl aristotl`` ``exemplar exemplar'' ''futur futurphilosoph philosophmediev medievmuslim muslimscholar scholarregular regulardescrib describaristotl aristotl`` ``first firstteacher teacher'' ''titl titl`` ``teacher teacher'' ''first firstgiven givenaristotl aristotlmuslim muslimscholar scholarlater lateruse usewestern westernphilosoph philosophfamous famouspoem poemdant dantinfluenc influenctradit traditislam islamphilosophi | 308 | Aristotle | Ancient Greek metaphysicians,Ancient literary critics,Ancient Greek mathematicians,Peripatetic philosophers,Ancient Greek political philosophers,Natural philosophers,Philosophers of culture,Social critics,Ancient Greek biologists,Greek male writers,Ancient Greek philosophers of mind,Aristotelianism,Metic philosophers in Classical Athens,Social commentators,Western philosophy,Political philosophers,Irony theorists,Philosophers of law,Ancient Greek ethicists,Ethicists,Metaphysicians,Epistemologists,Philosophy writers,Logicians,Philosophers of education,Virtue ethics,Philosophers of logic,Ancient Greek physicists,Ancient Greek philosophers of language,Philosophy academics,Founders of philosophical traditions,Critical thinking,Social philosophers,Moral philosophers,Virtue ethicists,Western culture,4th-century BC philosophers,Aristotle,Philosophers of ethics and morality,322 BC deaths,Humor researchers,Logic,Trope theorists,Academic philosophers,Ancient Stagirites,Philosophers and tutors of Alexander the Great,Attic Greek writers,Ancient Greek metaphilosophers,Cultural critics,Greek meteorologists,Philosophers of literature,Ancient Greek logicians,Philosophers of art,Ancient Greeks in Macedon,Philosophers of technology,Philosophers of science,4th-century BC writers,Cosmologists,Philosophers of love,384 BC births,Rhetoric theorists,Acting theorists,Virtue,Philosophical logic,Philosophers of ancient Chalcidice,Philosophers of mind,Aristotelian philosophers,Ancient Greek epistemologists,Metaphilosophers |
308-41 | Aristotle
Section::::Influence.:On medieval Europe.
With the loss of the study of ancient Greek in the early medieval Latin West, Aristotle was practically unknown there from c. AD 600 to c. 1100 except through the Latin translation of the "Organon" made by Boethius. In the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, interest in Aristotle revived and Latin Christians had translations made, both from Arabic translations, such as those by Gerard of Cremona, and from the original Greek, such as those by James of Venice and William of Moerbeke. After the Scholastic Thomas Aquinas wrote his "Summa Theologica", working from Moerbeke's translations and calling Aristotle "The Philosopher", the demand for Aristotle's writings grew, and the Greek manuscripts returned to the West, stimulating a revival of Aristotelianism in Europe that continued into the Renaissance. These thinkers blended Aristotelian philosophy with Christianity, bringing the thought of Ancient Greece into the Middle Ages. Scholars such as Boethius, Peter Abelard, and John Buridan worked on Aristotelian logic.
The medieval English poet Chaucer describes his student as being happy by having
A cautionary medieval tale held that Aristotle advised his pupil Alexander to avoid the king's seductive mistress, Phyllis, but was himself captivated by her, and allowed her to ride him. Phyllis had secretly told Alexander what to expect, and he witnessed Phyllis proving that a woman's charms could overcome even the greatest philosopher's male intellect. Artists such as Hans Baldung produced a series of illustrations of the popular theme.
The Italian poet Dante says of Aristotle in "The Divine Comedy":
section:influenc :influencmediev medieveurop europloss lossstudi studiancient ancientgreek greekearli earlimediev medievlatin latinwest westaristotl aristotlpractic practicunknown unknownc. c.ad ad600 600c. c.1100 1100except exceptlatin latintranslat translat`` ``organon organon'' ''made madeboethius boethiustwelfth twelfththirteenth thirteenthcenturi centuriinterest interestaristotl aristotlreviv revivlatin latinchristian christiantranslat translatmade madearab arabtranslat translatgerard gerardcremona cremonaorigin origingreek greekjame jamevenic venicwilliam williammoerbek moerbekscholast scholastthoma thomaaquina aquinawrote wrote`` ``summa summatheologica theologica'' ''work workmoerbek moerbek's 'stranslat translatcall callaristotl aristotl`` ``philosoph philosoph'' ''demand demandaristotl aristotl's 'swrite writegrew grewgreek greekmanuscript manuscriptreturn returnwest weststimul stimulreviv revivaristotelian aristotelianeurop europcontinu continurenaiss renaissthinker thinkerblend blendaristotelian aristotelianphilosophi philosophichristian christianbring bringthought thoughtancient ancientgreec greecmiddl middlage agescholar scholarboethius boethiuspeter peterabelard abelardjohn johnburidan buridanwork workaristotelian aristotelianlogic logicmediev medievenglish englishpoet poetchaucer chaucerdescrib describstudent studenthappi happicautionari cautionarimediev medievtale taleheld heldaristotl aristotladvis advispupil pupilalexand alexandavoid avoidking king's 'sseduct seductmistress mistressphylli phyllicaptiv captivallow allowride ridephylli phyllisecret secrettold toldalexand alexandexpect expectwit witphylli phylliprove provewoman woman's 'scharm charmcould couldovercom overcomeven evengreatest greatestphilosoph philosoph's 'smale maleintellect intellectartist artisthan hanbaldung baldungproduc producseri seriillustr illustrpopular populartheme themeitalian italianpoet poetdant dantsay sayaristotl aristotl`` ``divin divincomedi comedi'' | 308 | Aristotle | Ancient Greek metaphysicians,Ancient literary critics,Ancient Greek mathematicians,Peripatetic philosophers,Ancient Greek political philosophers,Natural philosophers,Philosophers of culture,Social critics,Ancient Greek biologists,Greek male writers,Ancient Greek philosophers of mind,Aristotelianism,Metic philosophers in Classical Athens,Social commentators,Western philosophy,Political philosophers,Irony theorists,Philosophers of law,Ancient Greek ethicists,Ethicists,Metaphysicians,Epistemologists,Philosophy writers,Logicians,Philosophers of education,Virtue ethics,Philosophers of logic,Ancient Greek physicists,Ancient Greek philosophers of language,Philosophy academics,Founders of philosophical traditions,Critical thinking,Social philosophers,Moral philosophers,Virtue ethicists,Western culture,4th-century BC philosophers,Aristotle,Philosophers of ethics and morality,322 BC deaths,Humor researchers,Logic,Trope theorists,Academic philosophers,Ancient Stagirites,Philosophers and tutors of Alexander the Great,Attic Greek writers,Ancient Greek metaphilosophers,Cultural critics,Greek meteorologists,Philosophers of literature,Ancient Greek logicians,Philosophers of art,Ancient Greeks in Macedon,Philosophers of technology,Philosophers of science,4th-century BC writers,Cosmologists,Philosophers of love,384 BC births,Rhetoric theorists,Acting theorists,Virtue,Philosophical logic,Philosophers of ancient Chalcidice,Philosophers of mind,Aristotelian philosophers,Ancient Greek epistemologists,Metaphilosophers |
308-42 | Aristotle
Section::::Influence.:On Early Modern scientists.
In the Early Modern period, scientists such as William Harvey in England and Galileo Galilei in Italy reacted against the theories of Aristotle and other classical era thinkers like Galen, establishing new theories based to some degree on observation and experiment. Harvey demonstrated the circulation of the blood, establishing that the heart functioned as a pump rather than being the seat of the soul and the controller of the body's heat, as Aristotle thought. Galileo used more doubtful arguments to displace Aristotle's physics, proposing that bodies all fall at the same speed whatever their weight.
section:influenc :influencearli earlimodern modernscientist scientistearli earlimodern modernperiod periodscientist scientistwilliam williamharvey harveyengland englandgalileo galileogalilei galileiitali italireact reacttheori theoriaristotl aristotlclassic classicera erathinker thinkerlike likegalen galenestablish establishnew newtheori theoribase basedegre degreobserv observexperi experiharvey harveydemonstr demonstrcircul circulblood bloodestablish establishheart heartfunction functionpump pumprather ratherseat seatsoul soulcontrol controlbodi bodi's 'sheat heataristotl aristotlthought thoughtgalileo galileouse usedoubt doubtargument argumentdisplac displacaristotl aristotl's 'sphysic physicpropos proposbodi bodifall fallspeed speedwhatev whatevweight | 308 | Aristotle | Ancient Greek metaphysicians,Ancient literary critics,Ancient Greek mathematicians,Peripatetic philosophers,Ancient Greek political philosophers,Natural philosophers,Philosophers of culture,Social critics,Ancient Greek biologists,Greek male writers,Ancient Greek philosophers of mind,Aristotelianism,Metic philosophers in Classical Athens,Social commentators,Western philosophy,Political philosophers,Irony theorists,Philosophers of law,Ancient Greek ethicists,Ethicists,Metaphysicians,Epistemologists,Philosophy writers,Logicians,Philosophers of education,Virtue ethics,Philosophers of logic,Ancient Greek physicists,Ancient Greek philosophers of language,Philosophy academics,Founders of philosophical traditions,Critical thinking,Social philosophers,Moral philosophers,Virtue ethicists,Western culture,4th-century BC philosophers,Aristotle,Philosophers of ethics and morality,322 BC deaths,Humor researchers,Logic,Trope theorists,Academic philosophers,Ancient Stagirites,Philosophers and tutors of Alexander the Great,Attic Greek writers,Ancient Greek metaphilosophers,Cultural critics,Greek meteorologists,Philosophers of literature,Ancient Greek logicians,Philosophers of art,Ancient Greeks in Macedon,Philosophers of technology,Philosophers of science,4th-century BC writers,Cosmologists,Philosophers of love,384 BC births,Rhetoric theorists,Acting theorists,Virtue,Philosophical logic,Philosophers of ancient Chalcidice,Philosophers of mind,Aristotelian philosophers,Ancient Greek epistemologists,Metaphilosophers |
308-43 | Aristotle
Section::::Influence.:On 19th-century thinkers.
The 19th-century German philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche has been said to have taken nearly all of his political philosophy from Aristotle. Aristotle rigidly separated action from production, and argued for the deserved subservience of some people ("natural slaves"), and the natural superiority (virtue, "arete") of others. It was Martin Heidegger, not Nietzsche, who elaborated a new interpretation of Aristotle, intended to warrant his deconstruction of scholastic and philosophical tradition.
The English mathematician George Boole fully accepted Aristotle's logic, but decided "to go under, over, and beyond" it with his system of algebraic logic in his 1854 book "The Laws of Thought". This gives logic a mathematical foundation with equations, enables it to solve equations as well as check validity, and allows it to handle a wider class of problems by expanding propositions of any number of terms, not just two.
section:influenc :influenc19th-centuri 19th-centurithinker thinker19th-centuri 19th-centurigerman germanphilosoph philosophfriedrich friedrichnietzsch nietzschsaid saidtaken takennear nearpolit politphilosophi philosophiaristotl aristotlaristotl aristotlrigid rigidsepar separaction actionproduct productargu argudeserv deservsubservi subservipeopl peopl`` ``natur naturslave slave'' ''natur natursuperior superiorvirtu virtu`` ``aret aret'' ''other othermartin martinheidegg heideggnietzsch nietzschelabor elabornew newinterpret interpretaristotl aristotlintend intendwarrant warrantdeconstruct deconstructscholast scholastphilosoph philosophtradit traditenglish englishmathematician mathematiciangeorg georgbool boolfulli fulliaccept acceptaristotl aristotl's 'slogic logicdecid decid`` ``go gobeyond beyond'' ''system systemalgebra algebralogic logic1854 1854book book`` ``law lawthought thought'' ''give givelogic logicmathemat mathematfoundat foundatequat equatenabl enablsolv solvequat equatwell wellcheck checkvalid validallow allowhandl handlwider widerclass classproblem problemexpand expandproposit propositnumber numberterm termtwo | 308 | Aristotle | Ancient Greek metaphysicians,Ancient literary critics,Ancient Greek mathematicians,Peripatetic philosophers,Ancient Greek political philosophers,Natural philosophers,Philosophers of culture,Social critics,Ancient Greek biologists,Greek male writers,Ancient Greek philosophers of mind,Aristotelianism,Metic philosophers in Classical Athens,Social commentators,Western philosophy,Political philosophers,Irony theorists,Philosophers of law,Ancient Greek ethicists,Ethicists,Metaphysicians,Epistemologists,Philosophy writers,Logicians,Philosophers of education,Virtue ethics,Philosophers of logic,Ancient Greek physicists,Ancient Greek philosophers of language,Philosophy academics,Founders of philosophical traditions,Critical thinking,Social philosophers,Moral philosophers,Virtue ethicists,Western culture,4th-century BC philosophers,Aristotle,Philosophers of ethics and morality,322 BC deaths,Humor researchers,Logic,Trope theorists,Academic philosophers,Ancient Stagirites,Philosophers and tutors of Alexander the Great,Attic Greek writers,Ancient Greek metaphilosophers,Cultural critics,Greek meteorologists,Philosophers of literature,Ancient Greek logicians,Philosophers of art,Ancient Greeks in Macedon,Philosophers of technology,Philosophers of science,4th-century BC writers,Cosmologists,Philosophers of love,384 BC births,Rhetoric theorists,Acting theorists,Virtue,Philosophical logic,Philosophers of ancient Chalcidice,Philosophers of mind,Aristotelian philosophers,Ancient Greek epistemologists,Metaphilosophers |
308-44 | Aristotle
Section::::Influence.:Modern rejection and rehabilitation.
During the 20th century, Aristotle's work was widely criticised. The philosopher Bertrand Russell
argued that "almost every serious intellectual advance has had to begin with an attack on some Aristotelian doctrine". Russell called Aristotle's ethics "repulsive", and labelled his logic "as definitely antiquated as Ptolemaic astronomy". Russell stated that these errors made it difficult to do historical justice to Aristotle, until one remembered what an advance he made upon all of his predecessors.
The Dutch historian of science Eduard Jan Dijksterhuis wrote that Aristotle and his predecessors showed the difficulty of science by "proceed[ing] so readily to frame a theory of such a general character" on limited evidence from their senses. In 1985, the biologist Peter Medawar could still state in "pure seventeenth century" tones that Aristotle had assembled "a strange and generally speaking rather tiresome farrago of hearsay, imperfect observation, wishful thinking and credulity amounting to downright gullibility".
By the start of the 21st century, however, Aristotle was taken more seriously: Kukkonen noted that "In the best 20th-century scholarship Aristotle comes alive as a thinker wrestling with the full weight of the Greek philosophical tradition." Ayn Rand accredited Aristotle as "the greatest philosopher in history" and cited him as a major influence on her thinking. More recently, Alasdair MacIntyre has attempted to reform what he calls the Aristotelian tradition in a way that is anti-elitist and capable of disputing the claims of both liberals and Nietzscheans. Kukkonen observed, too, that "that most enduring of romantic images, Aristotle tutoring the future conqueror Alexander" remained current, as in the 2004 film "Alexander", while the "firm rules" of Aristotle's theory of drama have ensured a role for the "Poetics" in Hollywood.
Biologists continue to be interested in Aristotle's thinking. Armand Marie Leroi has reconstructed Aristotle's biology, while Niko Tinbergen's four questions, based on Aristotle's four causes, are used to analyse animal behaviour; they examine function, phylogeny, mechanism, and ontogeny.
section:influenc :influencmodern modernreject rejectrehabilit rehabilit20th 20thcenturi centuriaristotl aristotl's 'swork workwide widecriticis criticisphilosoph philosophbertrand bertrandrussel russelargu argu`` ``almost almosteveri everiserious seriousintellectu intellectuadvanc advancbegin beginattack attackaristotelian aristoteliandoctrin doctrin'' ''russel russelcall callaristotl aristotl's 'sethic ethic`` ``repuls repuls'' ''label labellogic logic`` ``definit definitantiqu antiquptolema ptolemaastronomi astronomi'' ''russel russelstate stateerror errormade madedifficult difficulthistor historjustic justicaristotl aristotlone onerememb remembadvanc advancmade madeupon uponpredecessor predecessordutch dutchhistorian historianscienc scienceduard eduardjan jandijksterhui dijksterhuiwrote wrotearistotl aristotlpredecessor predecessorshow showdifficulti difficultiscienc scienc`` ``proceed proceeding ingreadili readiliframe frametheori theorigeneral generalcharact charact'' ''limit limitevid evidsens sens1985 1985biologist biologistpeter petermedawar medawarcould couldstill stillstate state`` ``pure pureseventeenth seventeenthcenturi centuri'' ''tone tonearistotl aristotlassembl assembl`` ``strang stranggeneral generalspeak speakrather rathertiresom tiresomfarrago farragohearsay hearsayimperfect imperfectobserv observwish wishthink thinkcredul credulamount amountdownright downrightgullibl gullibl'' ''start start21st 21stcenturi centurihowev howevaristotl aristotltaken takenserious seriouskukkonen kukkonennote note`` ``best best20th-centuri 20th-centurischolarship scholarshiparistotl aristotlcome comealiv alivthinker thinkerwrestl wrestlfull fullweight weightgreek greekphilosoph philosophtradit tradit'' ''ayn aynrand randaccredit accreditaristotl aristotl`` ``greatest greatestphilosoph philosophhistori histori'' ''cite citemajor majorinfluenc influencthink thinkrecent recentalasdair alasdairmacintyr macintyrattempt attemptreform reformcall callaristotelian aristoteliantradit traditway wayanti-elitist anti-elitistcapabl capabldisput disputclaim claimliber libernietzschean nietzscheankukkonen kukkonenobserv observ`` ``endur endurromant romantimag imagaristotl aristotltutor tutorfutur futurconqueror conqueroralexand alexand'' ''remain remaincurrent current2004 2004film film`` ``alexand alexand'' ''`` ``firm firmrule rule'' ''aristotl aristotl's 'stheori theoridrama dramaensur ensurrole role`` ``poetic poetic'' ''hollywood hollywoodbiologist biologistcontinu continuinterest interestaristotl aristotl's 'sthink thinkarmand armandmari marileroi leroireconstruct reconstructaristotl aristotl's 'sbiolog biologniko nikotinbergen tinbergen's 'sfour fourquestion questionbase basearistotl aristotl's 'sfour fourcaus caususe useanalys analysanim animbehaviour behaviourexamin examinfunction functionphylogeni phylogenimechan mechanontogeni | 308 | Aristotle | Ancient Greek metaphysicians,Ancient literary critics,Ancient Greek mathematicians,Peripatetic philosophers,Ancient Greek political philosophers,Natural philosophers,Philosophers of culture,Social critics,Ancient Greek biologists,Greek male writers,Ancient Greek philosophers of mind,Aristotelianism,Metic philosophers in Classical Athens,Social commentators,Western philosophy,Political philosophers,Irony theorists,Philosophers of law,Ancient Greek ethicists,Ethicists,Metaphysicians,Epistemologists,Philosophy writers,Logicians,Philosophers of education,Virtue ethics,Philosophers of logic,Ancient Greek physicists,Ancient Greek philosophers of language,Philosophy academics,Founders of philosophical traditions,Critical thinking,Social philosophers,Moral philosophers,Virtue ethicists,Western culture,4th-century BC philosophers,Aristotle,Philosophers of ethics and morality,322 BC deaths,Humor researchers,Logic,Trope theorists,Academic philosophers,Ancient Stagirites,Philosophers and tutors of Alexander the Great,Attic Greek writers,Ancient Greek metaphilosophers,Cultural critics,Greek meteorologists,Philosophers of literature,Ancient Greek logicians,Philosophers of art,Ancient Greeks in Macedon,Philosophers of technology,Philosophers of science,4th-century BC writers,Cosmologists,Philosophers of love,384 BC births,Rhetoric theorists,Acting theorists,Virtue,Philosophical logic,Philosophers of ancient Chalcidice,Philosophers of mind,Aristotelian philosophers,Ancient Greek epistemologists,Metaphilosophers |
308-45 | Aristotle
Section::::Surviving works.
section:surviv :survivwork | 308 | Aristotle | Ancient Greek metaphysicians,Ancient literary critics,Ancient Greek mathematicians,Peripatetic philosophers,Ancient Greek political philosophers,Natural philosophers,Philosophers of culture,Social critics,Ancient Greek biologists,Greek male writers,Ancient Greek philosophers of mind,Aristotelianism,Metic philosophers in Classical Athens,Social commentators,Western philosophy,Political philosophers,Irony theorists,Philosophers of law,Ancient Greek ethicists,Ethicists,Metaphysicians,Epistemologists,Philosophy writers,Logicians,Philosophers of education,Virtue ethics,Philosophers of logic,Ancient Greek physicists,Ancient Greek philosophers of language,Philosophy academics,Founders of philosophical traditions,Critical thinking,Social philosophers,Moral philosophers,Virtue ethicists,Western culture,4th-century BC philosophers,Aristotle,Philosophers of ethics and morality,322 BC deaths,Humor researchers,Logic,Trope theorists,Academic philosophers,Ancient Stagirites,Philosophers and tutors of Alexander the Great,Attic Greek writers,Ancient Greek metaphilosophers,Cultural critics,Greek meteorologists,Philosophers of literature,Ancient Greek logicians,Philosophers of art,Ancient Greeks in Macedon,Philosophers of technology,Philosophers of science,4th-century BC writers,Cosmologists,Philosophers of love,384 BC births,Rhetoric theorists,Acting theorists,Virtue,Philosophical logic,Philosophers of ancient Chalcidice,Philosophers of mind,Aristotelian philosophers,Ancient Greek epistemologists,Metaphilosophers |
308-46 | Aristotle
Section::::Surviving works.:Corpus Aristotelicum.
The works of Aristotle that have survived from antiquity through medieval manuscript transmission are collected in the Corpus Aristotelicum. These texts, as opposed to Aristotle's lost works, are technical philosophical treatises from within Aristotle's school. Reference to them is made according to the organisation of Immanuel Bekker's Royal Prussian Academy edition ("Aristotelis Opera edidit Academia Regia Borussica", Berlin, 1831–1870), which in turn is based on ancient classifications of these works.
section:surviv :survivwork workcorpus corpusaristotelicum aristotelicumwork workaristotl aristotlsurviv survivantiqu antiqumediev medievmanuscript manuscripttransmiss transmisscollect collectcorpus corpusaristotelicum aristotelicumtext textoppos opposaristotl aristotl's 'slost lostwork worktechnic technicphilosoph philosophtreatis treatiswithin withinaristotl aristotl's 'sschool schoolrefer refermade madeaccord accordorganis organisimmanuel immanuelbekker bekker's 'sroyal royalprussian prussianacademi academiedit edit`` ``aristot aristotopera operaedidit ediditacademia academiaregia regiaborussica borussica'' ''berlin berlin1831–1870 1831–1870turn turnbase baseancient ancientclassif classifwork | 308 | Aristotle | Ancient Greek metaphysicians,Ancient literary critics,Ancient Greek mathematicians,Peripatetic philosophers,Ancient Greek political philosophers,Natural philosophers,Philosophers of culture,Social critics,Ancient Greek biologists,Greek male writers,Ancient Greek philosophers of mind,Aristotelianism,Metic philosophers in Classical Athens,Social commentators,Western philosophy,Political philosophers,Irony theorists,Philosophers of law,Ancient Greek ethicists,Ethicists,Metaphysicians,Epistemologists,Philosophy writers,Logicians,Philosophers of education,Virtue ethics,Philosophers of logic,Ancient Greek physicists,Ancient Greek philosophers of language,Philosophy academics,Founders of philosophical traditions,Critical thinking,Social philosophers,Moral philosophers,Virtue ethicists,Western culture,4th-century BC philosophers,Aristotle,Philosophers of ethics and morality,322 BC deaths,Humor researchers,Logic,Trope theorists,Academic philosophers,Ancient Stagirites,Philosophers and tutors of Alexander the Great,Attic Greek writers,Ancient Greek metaphilosophers,Cultural critics,Greek meteorologists,Philosophers of literature,Ancient Greek logicians,Philosophers of art,Ancient Greeks in Macedon,Philosophers of technology,Philosophers of science,4th-century BC writers,Cosmologists,Philosophers of love,384 BC births,Rhetoric theorists,Acting theorists,Virtue,Philosophical logic,Philosophers of ancient Chalcidice,Philosophers of mind,Aristotelian philosophers,Ancient Greek epistemologists,Metaphilosophers |
308-47 | Aristotle
Section::::Surviving works.:Loss and preservation.
Aristotle wrote his works on papyrus scrolls, the common writing medium of that era. His writings are divisible into two groups: the "exoteric", intended for the public, and the "esoteric", for use within the Lyceum school. Aristotle's "lost" works stray considerably in characterisation from the surviving Aristotelian corpus. Whereas the lost works appear to have been originally written with a view to subsequent publication, the surviving works mostly resemble lecture notes not intended for publication. Cicero's description of Aristotle's literary style as "a river of gold" must have applied to the published works, not the surviving notes. A major question in the history of Aristotle's works is how the exoteric writings were all lost, and how the ones we now possess came to us. The consensus is that Andronicus of Rhodes collected the esoteric works of Aristotle's school which existed in the form of smaller, separate works, distinguished them from those of Theophrastus and other Peripatetics, edited them, and finally compiled them into the more cohesive, larger works as they are known today.
section:surviv :survivwork workloss losspreserv preservaristotl aristotlwrote wrotework workpapyrus papyrusscroll scrollcommon commonwrite writemedium mediumera erawrite writedivis divistwo twogroup group`` ``exoter exoter'' ''intend intendpublic public`` ``esoter esoter'' ''use usewithin withinlyceum lyceumschool schoolaristotl aristotl's 's`` ``lost lost'' ''work workstray strayconsider considercharacteris characterissurviv survivaristotelian aristoteliancorpus corpuswherea wherealost lostwork workappear appearorigin originwritten writtenview viewsubsequ subsequpublic publicsurviv survivwork workmost mostresembl resembllectur lecturnote noteintend intendpublic publiccicero cicero's 'sdescript descriptaristotl aristotl's 'sliterari literaristyle style`` ``river rivergold gold'' ''must mustappli applipublish publishwork worksurviv survivnote notemajor majorquestion questionhistori historiaristotl aristotl's 'swork workexoter exoterwrite writelost lostone onepossess possesscame cameus usconsensus consensusandronicus andronicusrhode rhodecollect collectesoter esoterwork workaristotl aristotl's 'sschool schoolexist existform formsmaller smallersepar separwork workdistinguish distinguishtheophrastus theophrastusperipatet peripatetedit editfinal finalcompil compilcohes coheslarger largerwork workknown knowntoday | 308 | Aristotle | Ancient Greek metaphysicians,Ancient literary critics,Ancient Greek mathematicians,Peripatetic philosophers,Ancient Greek political philosophers,Natural philosophers,Philosophers of culture,Social critics,Ancient Greek biologists,Greek male writers,Ancient Greek philosophers of mind,Aristotelianism,Metic philosophers in Classical Athens,Social commentators,Western philosophy,Political philosophers,Irony theorists,Philosophers of law,Ancient Greek ethicists,Ethicists,Metaphysicians,Epistemologists,Philosophy writers,Logicians,Philosophers of education,Virtue ethics,Philosophers of logic,Ancient Greek physicists,Ancient Greek philosophers of language,Philosophy academics,Founders of philosophical traditions,Critical thinking,Social philosophers,Moral philosophers,Virtue ethicists,Western culture,4th-century BC philosophers,Aristotle,Philosophers of ethics and morality,322 BC deaths,Humor researchers,Logic,Trope theorists,Academic philosophers,Ancient Stagirites,Philosophers and tutors of Alexander the Great,Attic Greek writers,Ancient Greek metaphilosophers,Cultural critics,Greek meteorologists,Philosophers of literature,Ancient Greek logicians,Philosophers of art,Ancient Greeks in Macedon,Philosophers of technology,Philosophers of science,4th-century BC writers,Cosmologists,Philosophers of love,384 BC births,Rhetoric theorists,Acting theorists,Virtue,Philosophical logic,Philosophers of ancient Chalcidice,Philosophers of mind,Aristotelian philosophers,Ancient Greek epistemologists,Metaphilosophers |
308-48 | Aristotle
Section::::Legacy.
section:legaci | 308 | Aristotle | Ancient Greek metaphysicians,Ancient literary critics,Ancient Greek mathematicians,Peripatetic philosophers,Ancient Greek political philosophers,Natural philosophers,Philosophers of culture,Social critics,Ancient Greek biologists,Greek male writers,Ancient Greek philosophers of mind,Aristotelianism,Metic philosophers in Classical Athens,Social commentators,Western philosophy,Political philosophers,Irony theorists,Philosophers of law,Ancient Greek ethicists,Ethicists,Metaphysicians,Epistemologists,Philosophy writers,Logicians,Philosophers of education,Virtue ethics,Philosophers of logic,Ancient Greek physicists,Ancient Greek philosophers of language,Philosophy academics,Founders of philosophical traditions,Critical thinking,Social philosophers,Moral philosophers,Virtue ethicists,Western culture,4th-century BC philosophers,Aristotle,Philosophers of ethics and morality,322 BC deaths,Humor researchers,Logic,Trope theorists,Academic philosophers,Ancient Stagirites,Philosophers and tutors of Alexander the Great,Attic Greek writers,Ancient Greek metaphilosophers,Cultural critics,Greek meteorologists,Philosophers of literature,Ancient Greek logicians,Philosophers of art,Ancient Greeks in Macedon,Philosophers of technology,Philosophers of science,4th-century BC writers,Cosmologists,Philosophers of love,384 BC births,Rhetoric theorists,Acting theorists,Virtue,Philosophical logic,Philosophers of ancient Chalcidice,Philosophers of mind,Aristotelian philosophers,Ancient Greek epistemologists,Metaphilosophers |
308-49 | Aristotle
Section::::Legacy.:Depictions.
Aristotle has been depicted by major artists including Lucas Cranach the Elder, Justus van Gent, Raphael, Paolo Veronese, Jusepe de Ribera, Rembrandt, and Francesco Hayez over the centuries. Among the best-known is Raphael's fresco "The School of Athens", in the Vatican's Apostolic Palace, where the figures of Plato and Aristotle are central to the image, at the architectural vanishing point, reflecting their importance. Rembrandt's "Aristotle with a Bust of Homer", too, is a celebrated work, showing the knowing philosopher and the blind Homer from an earlier age: as the art critic Jonathan Jones writes, "this painting will remain one of the greatest and most mysterious in the world, ensnaring us in its musty, glowing, pitch-black, terrible knowledge of time."
section:legacy. :legacy.depict depictaristotl aristotldepict depictmajor majorartist artistinclud includluca lucacranach cranachelder elderjustus justusvan vangent gentraphael raphaelpaolo paoloverones veronesjusep jusepde deribera riberarembrandt rembrandtfrancesco francescohayez hayezcenturi centuriamong amongbest-known best-knownraphael raphael's 'sfresco fresco`` ``school schoolathen athen'' ''vatican vatican's 'sapostol apostolpalac palacfigur figurplato platoaristotl aristotlcentral centralimag imagarchitectur architecturvanish vanishpoint pointreflect reflectimport importrembrandt rembrandt's 's`` ``aristotl aristotlbust busthomer homer'' ''celebr celebrwork workshow showknow knowphilosoph philosophblind blindhomer homerearlier earlierage ageart artcritic criticjonathan jonathanjone jonewrite write`` ``paint paintremain remainone onegreatest greatestmysteri mysteriworld worldensnar ensnarus usmusti mustiglow glowpitch-black pitch-blackterribl terriblknowledg knowledgtime time'' | 308 | Aristotle | Ancient Greek metaphysicians,Ancient literary critics,Ancient Greek mathematicians,Peripatetic philosophers,Ancient Greek political philosophers,Natural philosophers,Philosophers of culture,Social critics,Ancient Greek biologists,Greek male writers,Ancient Greek philosophers of mind,Aristotelianism,Metic philosophers in Classical Athens,Social commentators,Western philosophy,Political philosophers,Irony theorists,Philosophers of law,Ancient Greek ethicists,Ethicists,Metaphysicians,Epistemologists,Philosophy writers,Logicians,Philosophers of education,Virtue ethics,Philosophers of logic,Ancient Greek physicists,Ancient Greek philosophers of language,Philosophy academics,Founders of philosophical traditions,Critical thinking,Social philosophers,Moral philosophers,Virtue ethicists,Western culture,4th-century BC philosophers,Aristotle,Philosophers of ethics and morality,322 BC deaths,Humor researchers,Logic,Trope theorists,Academic philosophers,Ancient Stagirites,Philosophers and tutors of Alexander the Great,Attic Greek writers,Ancient Greek metaphilosophers,Cultural critics,Greek meteorologists,Philosophers of literature,Ancient Greek logicians,Philosophers of art,Ancient Greeks in Macedon,Philosophers of technology,Philosophers of science,4th-century BC writers,Cosmologists,Philosophers of love,384 BC births,Rhetoric theorists,Acting theorists,Virtue,Philosophical logic,Philosophers of ancient Chalcidice,Philosophers of mind,Aristotelian philosophers,Ancient Greek epistemologists,Metaphilosophers |
308-50 | Aristotle
Section::::Legacy.:Eponyms.
The Aristotle Mountains in Antarctica are named after Aristotle. He was the first person known to conjecture, in his book "Meteorology", the existence of a landmass in the southern high-latitude region and called it "Antarctica". Aristoteles is a crater on the Moon bearing the classical form of Aristotle's name.
section:legacy. :legacy.eponym eponymaristotl aristotlmountain mountainantarctica antarcticaname namearistotl aristotlfirst firstperson personknown knownconjectur conjecturbook book`` ``meteorolog meteorolog'' ''exist existlandmass landmasssouthern southernhigh-latitud high-latitudregion regioncall call`` ``antarctica antarctica'' ''aristotel aristotelcrater cratermoon moonbear bearclassic classicform formaristotl aristotl's 'sname | 308 | Aristotle | Ancient Greek metaphysicians,Ancient literary critics,Ancient Greek mathematicians,Peripatetic philosophers,Ancient Greek political philosophers,Natural philosophers,Philosophers of culture,Social critics,Ancient Greek biologists,Greek male writers,Ancient Greek philosophers of mind,Aristotelianism,Metic philosophers in Classical Athens,Social commentators,Western philosophy,Political philosophers,Irony theorists,Philosophers of law,Ancient Greek ethicists,Ethicists,Metaphysicians,Epistemologists,Philosophy writers,Logicians,Philosophers of education,Virtue ethics,Philosophers of logic,Ancient Greek physicists,Ancient Greek philosophers of language,Philosophy academics,Founders of philosophical traditions,Critical thinking,Social philosophers,Moral philosophers,Virtue ethicists,Western culture,4th-century BC philosophers,Aristotle,Philosophers of ethics and morality,322 BC deaths,Humor researchers,Logic,Trope theorists,Academic philosophers,Ancient Stagirites,Philosophers and tutors of Alexander the Great,Attic Greek writers,Ancient Greek metaphilosophers,Cultural critics,Greek meteorologists,Philosophers of literature,Ancient Greek logicians,Philosophers of art,Ancient Greeks in Macedon,Philosophers of technology,Philosophers of science,4th-century BC writers,Cosmologists,Philosophers of love,384 BC births,Rhetoric theorists,Acting theorists,Virtue,Philosophical logic,Philosophers of ancient Chalcidice,Philosophers of mind,Aristotelian philosophers,Ancient Greek epistemologists,Metaphilosophers |
308-51 | Aristotle
Section::::See also.
BULLET::::- Aristotelian Society
BULLET::::- Conimbricenses
section:see :seealso alsobullet bullet:- :-aristotelian aristoteliansocieti societibullet bullet:- :-conimbricens | 308 | Aristotle | Ancient Greek metaphysicians,Ancient literary critics,Ancient Greek mathematicians,Peripatetic philosophers,Ancient Greek political philosophers,Natural philosophers,Philosophers of culture,Social critics,Ancient Greek biologists,Greek male writers,Ancient Greek philosophers of mind,Aristotelianism,Metic philosophers in Classical Athens,Social commentators,Western philosophy,Political philosophers,Irony theorists,Philosophers of law,Ancient Greek ethicists,Ethicists,Metaphysicians,Epistemologists,Philosophy writers,Logicians,Philosophers of education,Virtue ethics,Philosophers of logic,Ancient Greek physicists,Ancient Greek philosophers of language,Philosophy academics,Founders of philosophical traditions,Critical thinking,Social philosophers,Moral philosophers,Virtue ethicists,Western culture,4th-century BC philosophers,Aristotle,Philosophers of ethics and morality,322 BC deaths,Humor researchers,Logic,Trope theorists,Academic philosophers,Ancient Stagirites,Philosophers and tutors of Alexander the Great,Attic Greek writers,Ancient Greek metaphilosophers,Cultural critics,Greek meteorologists,Philosophers of literature,Ancient Greek logicians,Philosophers of art,Ancient Greeks in Macedon,Philosophers of technology,Philosophers of science,4th-century BC writers,Cosmologists,Philosophers of love,384 BC births,Rhetoric theorists,Acting theorists,Virtue,Philosophical logic,Philosophers of ancient Chalcidice,Philosophers of mind,Aristotelian philosophers,Ancient Greek epistemologists,Metaphilosophers |
308-52 | Aristotle
Section::::Further reading.
The secondary literature on Aristotle is vast. The following is only a small selection.
BULLET::::- Ackrill, J. L. (1997). "Essays on Plato and Aristotle", Oxford University Press.
BULLET::::- These translations are available in several places online; see External links.
BULLET::::- Bakalis, Nikolaos. (2005). "Handbook of Greek Philosophy: From Thales to the Stoics Analysis and Fragments", Trafford Publishing
BULLET::::- Bolotin, David (1998). "An Approach to Aristotle's Physics: With Particular Attention to the Role of His Manner of Writing." Albany: SUNY Press. A contribution to our understanding of how to read Aristotle's scientific works.
BULLET::::- Burnyeat, Myles F. "et al." (1979). "Notes on Book Zeta of Aristotle's Metaphysics". Oxford: Sub-faculty of Philosophy.
BULLET::::- Code, Alan (1995). Potentiality in Aristotle's Science and Metaphysics, Pacific Philosophical Quarterly 76.
BULLET::::- De Groot, Jean (2014). "Aristotle's Empiricism: Experience and Mechanics in the 4th Century BC", Parmenides Publishing,
BULLET::::- Frede, Michael (1987). "Essays in Ancient Philosophy". Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.
BULLET::::- Gendlin, Eugene T. (2012). "Line by Line Commentary on Aristotle's De Anima", Volume 1: Books I & II; Volume 2: Book III. The Focusing Institute.
BULLET::::- Gill, Mary Louise (1989). "Aristotle on Substance: The Paradox of Unity". Princeton University Press.
BULLET::::- Halper, Edward C. (2009). "One and Many in Aristotle's Metaphysics, Volume 1: Books Alpha – Delta", Parmenides Publishing.
BULLET::::- Halper, Edward C. (2005). "One and Many in Aristotle's Metaphysics, Volume 2: The Central Books", Parmenides Publishing.
BULLET::::- Irwin, Terence H. (1988). "Aristotle's First Principles". Oxford: Clarendon Press.
BULLET::::- Jori, Alberto (2003). "Aristotele", Bruno Mondadori (Prize 2003 of the "International Academy of the History of Science").
BULLET::::- Knight, Kelvin (2007). "Aristotelian Philosophy: Ethics and Politics from Aristotle to MacIntyre", Polity Press.
BULLET::::- Lewis, Frank A. (1991). "Substance and Predication in Aristotle". Cambridge University Press.
BULLET::::- Lord, Carnes (1984). "Introduction to "The Politics", by Aristotle". Chicago University Press.
BULLET::::- Loux, Michael J. (1991). Primary Ousia: An Essay on Aristotle's Metaphysics Ζ and Η. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.
BULLET::::- Maso, Stefano (Ed.), Natali, Carlo (Ed.), Seel, Gerhard (Ed.) (2012) "Reading Aristotle: Physics" VII. 3: "What is Alteration?" "Proceedings of the International ESAP-HYELE Conference", Parmenides Publishing.
BULLET::::- [Reprinted in J. Barnes, M. Schofield, and R.R.K. Sorabji, eds.(1975). "Articles on Aristotle" Vol 1. Science. London: Duckworth 14–34.]
BULLET::::- Pangle, Lorraine Smith (2003). "Aristotle and the Philosophy of Friendship". Cambridge University Press.
BULLET::::- Reeve, C. D. C. (2000). "Substantial Knowledge: Aristotle's Metaphysics". Hackett.
BULLET::::- Scaltsas, T. (1994). "Substances and Universals in Aristotle's Metaphysics". Cornell University Press.
BULLET::::- Strauss, Leo (1964). "On Aristotle's "Politics"", in "The City and Man", Rand McNally.
section:further :furtherread readsecondari secondariliteratur literaturaristotl aristotlvast vastfollow followsmall smallselect selectbullet bullet:- :-ackril ackrilj. j.l. l.1997 1997`` ``essay essayplato platoaristotl aristotl'' ''oxford oxfordunivers universpress pressbullet bullet:- :-translat translatavail availsever severplace placeonlin onlinsee seeextern externlink linkbullet bullet:- :-bakali bakalinikolao nikolao2005 2005`` ``handbook handbookgreek greekphilosophi philosophithale thalestoic stoicanalysi analysifragment fragment'' ''trafford traffordpublish publishbullet bullet:- :-bolotin bolotindavid david1998 1998`` ``approach approacharistotl aristotl's 'sphysic physicparticular particularattent attentrole rolemanner mannerwrite write'' ''albani albanisuni sunipress presscontribut contributunderstand understandread readaristotl aristotl's 'sscientif scientifwork workbullet bullet:- :-burnyeat burnyeatmyle mylef. f.`` ``et etal al'' ''1979 1979`` ``note notebook bookzeta zetaaristotl aristotl's 'smetaphys metaphys'' ''oxford oxfordsub-faculti sub-facultiphilosophi philosophibullet bullet:- :-code codealan alan1995 1995potenti potentiaristotl aristotl's 'sscienc sciencmetaphys metaphyspacif pacifphilosoph philosophquarter quarter76 76bullet bullet:- :-de degroot grootjean jean2014 2014`` ``aristotl aristotl's 'sempiric empiricexperi experimechan mechan4th 4thcenturi centuribc bc'' ''parmenid parmenidpublish publishbullet bullet:- :-frede fredemichael michael1987 1987`` ``essay essayancient ancientphilosophi philosophi'' ''minneapoli minneapoliunivers universminnesota minnesotapress pressbullet bullet:- :-gendlin gendlineugen eugent. t.2012 2012`` ``line lineline linecommentari commentariaristotl aristotl's 'sde deanima anima'' ''volum volum1 1book bookii iivolum volum2 2book bookiii iiifocus focusinstitut institutbullet bullet:- :-gill gillmari marilouis louis1989 1989`` ``aristotl aristotlsubstanc substancparadox paradoxuniti uniti'' ''princeton princetonunivers universpress pressbullet bullet:- :-halper halperedward edwardc. c.2009 2009`` ``one onemani maniaristotl aristotl's 'smetaphys metaphysvolum volum1 1book bookalpha alpha– –delta delta'' ''parmenid parmenidpublish publishbullet bullet:- :-halper halperedward edwardc. c.2005 2005`` ``one onemani maniaristotl aristotl's 'smetaphys metaphysvolum volum2 2central centralbook book'' ''parmenid parmenidpublish publishbullet bullet:- :-irwin irwinterenc terench. h.1988 1988`` ``aristotl aristotl's 'sfirst firstprincipl principl'' ''oxford oxfordclarendon clarendonpress pressbullet bullet:- :-jori jorialberto alberto2003 2003`` ``aristotel aristotel'' ''bruno brunomondadori mondadoriprize prize2003 2003`` ``intern internacademi academihistori historiscienc scienc'' ''bullet bullet:- :-knight knightkelvin kelvin2007 2007`` ``aristotelian aristotelianphilosophi philosophiethic ethicpolit politaristotl aristotlmacintyr macintyr'' ''politi politipress pressbullet bullet:- :-lewi lewifrank frank1991 1991`` ``substanc substancpredic predicaristotl aristotl'' ''cambridg cambridgunivers universpress pressbullet bullet:- :-lord lordcarn carn1984 1984`` ``introduct introduct`` ``polit polit'' ''aristotl aristotl'' ''chicago chicagounivers universpress pressbullet bullet:- :-loux louxmichael michaelj j1991 1991primari primariousia ousiaessay essayaristotl aristotl's 'smetaphys metaphysζ ζη. η.ithaca ithacany nycornel cornelunivers universpress pressbullet bullet:- :-maso masostefano stefanoed ednatali natalicarlo carloed edseel seelgerhard gerharded ed2012 2012`` ``read readaristotl aristotlphysic physic'' ''vii vii3 3`` ``alter alter'' ''`` ``proceed proceedintern internesap-hyel esap-hyelconfer confer'' ''parmenid parmenidpublish publishbullet bullet:- :-reprint reprintj. j.barn barnm. m.schofield schofieldr.r.k r.r.ksorabji sorabjieds. eds.1975 1975`` ``articl articlaristotl aristotl'' ''vol vol1 1scienc scienclondon londonduckworth duckworth14–34 14–34bullet bullet:- :-pangl pangllorrain lorrainsmith smith2003 2003`` ``aristotl aristotlphilosophi philosophifriendship friendship'' ''cambridg cambridgunivers universpress pressbullet bullet:- :-reev reevc. c.d. d.c. c.2000 2000`` ``substanti substantiknowledg knowledgaristotl aristotl's 'smetaphys metaphys'' ''hackett hackettbullet bullet:- :-scaltsa scaltsat. t.1994 1994`` ``substanc substancunivers universaristotl aristotl's 'smetaphys metaphys'' ''cornel cornelunivers universpress pressbullet bullet:- :-strauss straussleo leo1964 1964`` ``aristotl aristotl's 's`` ``polit polit'' '''' ''`` ``citi citiman man'' ''rand randmcnalli | 308 | Aristotle | Ancient Greek metaphysicians,Ancient literary critics,Ancient Greek mathematicians,Peripatetic philosophers,Ancient Greek political philosophers,Natural philosophers,Philosophers of culture,Social critics,Ancient Greek biologists,Greek male writers,Ancient Greek philosophers of mind,Aristotelianism,Metic philosophers in Classical Athens,Social commentators,Western philosophy,Political philosophers,Irony theorists,Philosophers of law,Ancient Greek ethicists,Ethicists,Metaphysicians,Epistemologists,Philosophy writers,Logicians,Philosophers of education,Virtue ethics,Philosophers of logic,Ancient Greek physicists,Ancient Greek philosophers of language,Philosophy academics,Founders of philosophical traditions,Critical thinking,Social philosophers,Moral philosophers,Virtue ethicists,Western culture,4th-century BC philosophers,Aristotle,Philosophers of ethics and morality,322 BC deaths,Humor researchers,Logic,Trope theorists,Academic philosophers,Ancient Stagirites,Philosophers and tutors of Alexander the Great,Attic Greek writers,Ancient Greek metaphilosophers,Cultural critics,Greek meteorologists,Philosophers of literature,Ancient Greek logicians,Philosophers of art,Ancient Greeks in Macedon,Philosophers of technology,Philosophers of science,4th-century BC writers,Cosmologists,Philosophers of love,384 BC births,Rhetoric theorists,Acting theorists,Virtue,Philosophical logic,Philosophers of ancient Chalcidice,Philosophers of mind,Aristotelian philosophers,Ancient Greek epistemologists,Metaphilosophers |
308-53 | Aristotle
Section::::External links.
BULLET::::- At the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy:
BULLET::::- From the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy:
BULLET::::- Collections of works
BULLET::::- At Massachusetts Institute of Technology
BULLET::::- Perseus Project at Tufts University
BULLET::::- At the University of Adelaide
BULLET::::- P. Remacle
BULLET::::- The 11-volume 1837 Bekker edition of "Aristotle's Works" in Greek (PDFDJVU)
section:extern :externlink linkbullet bullet:- :-internet internetencyclopedia encyclopediaphilosophi philosophibullet bullet:- :-stanford stanfordencyclopedia encyclopediaphilosophi philosophibullet bullet:- :-collect collectwork workbullet bullet:- :-massachusett massachusettinstitut instituttechnolog technologbullet bullet:- :-perseus perseusproject projecttuft tuftunivers universbullet bullet:- :-univers universadelaid adelaidbullet bullet:- :-p. p.remacl remaclbullet bullet:- :-11-volum 11-volum1837 1837bekker bekkeredit edit`` ``aristotl aristotl's 'swork work'' ''greek greekpdfdjvu | 308 | Aristotle | Ancient Greek metaphysicians,Ancient literary critics,Ancient Greek mathematicians,Peripatetic philosophers,Ancient Greek political philosophers,Natural philosophers,Philosophers of culture,Social critics,Ancient Greek biologists,Greek male writers,Ancient Greek philosophers of mind,Aristotelianism,Metic philosophers in Classical Athens,Social commentators,Western philosophy,Political philosophers,Irony theorists,Philosophers of law,Ancient Greek ethicists,Ethicists,Metaphysicians,Epistemologists,Philosophy writers,Logicians,Philosophers of education,Virtue ethics,Philosophers of logic,Ancient Greek physicists,Ancient Greek philosophers of language,Philosophy academics,Founders of philosophical traditions,Critical thinking,Social philosophers,Moral philosophers,Virtue ethicists,Western culture,4th-century BC philosophers,Aristotle,Philosophers of ethics and morality,322 BC deaths,Humor researchers,Logic,Trope theorists,Academic philosophers,Ancient Stagirites,Philosophers and tutors of Alexander the Great,Attic Greek writers,Ancient Greek metaphilosophers,Cultural critics,Greek meteorologists,Philosophers of literature,Ancient Greek logicians,Philosophers of art,Ancient Greeks in Macedon,Philosophers of technology,Philosophers of science,4th-century BC writers,Cosmologists,Philosophers of love,384 BC births,Rhetoric theorists,Acting theorists,Virtue,Philosophical logic,Philosophers of ancient Chalcidice,Philosophers of mind,Aristotelian philosophers,Ancient Greek epistemologists,Metaphilosophers |
157665-1 | Battle of Malakoff
The Battle of Malakoff was a French attack against Russian forces on the Malakoff redoubt and its subsequent capture on 8 September 1855 as a part of the Siege of Sevastopol during the Crimean War. The French army under General MacMahon successfully stormed the Malakoff redoubt, while a simultaneous British attack on the Redan to the south of the Malakoff was repulsed. In one of the war's defining moments, the French "zouave" Eugène Libaut raised the French flag on the top of the Russian redoubt. The Battle of Malakoff resulted in the fall of Sevastopol on 9 September, bringing the 11-month siege to an end.
battlmalakoff malakofffrench frenchattack attackrussian russianforc forcmalakoff malakoffredoubt redoubtsubsequ subsequcaptur captur8 8septemb septemb1855 1855part partsieg siegsevastopol sevastopolcrimean crimeanwar warfrench frencharmi armigeneral generalmacmahon macmahonsuccess successstorm stormmalakoff malakoffredoubt redoubtsimultan simultanbritish britishattack attackredan redansouth southmalakoff malakoffrepuls repulsone onewar war's 'sdefin definmoment momentfrench french`` ``zouav zouav'' ''eugèn eugènlibaut libautrais raisfrench frenchflag flagtop toprussian russianredoubt redoubtbattl battlmalakoff malakoffresult resultfall fallsevastopol sevastopol9 9septemb septembbring bring11-month 11-monthsieg siegend | 157665 | Battle of Malakoff | 1855 in France,Battles involving France,Military history of Sevastopol,1855 in the Russian Empire,Conflicts in 1855,Taurida Governorate,Battles of the Crimean War |
157665-2 | Battle of Malakoff
Section::::Background.
Until 1784 most of the fortifications around Sevastopol were dedicated to the protection of the harbour entrance, the city itself and its naval base and were positioned close to these features. The construction of fortifications in the surrounding hills had been planned as early as 1837, but at the time of the battle only basic facilities and roadways had been completed on the north side of the long, westward-facing bay. To the south the central anchor of the defence system was the Malakoff-Kurgan ridge. Situated about southeast of the city, it consisted of a two-story stone tower of limestone on which the Russians had placed five heavy 18-pounder cannons at the beginning of the siege.
There is some mystery surrounding this tower. Although it is known that the tower was built some time before the start of the war, the historical records do not show exactly when this occurred, and no mention of this is made in the contemporary descriptions of the siege itself. Additionally, there are different spellings and translations into or from Russian, including Малахова башня. What is known is that the tower was originally built or expanded by Sevastopol merchants and then later taken over by the Russian Navy. The tower had a diameter of about and a height of . In its centre the battery known as "Lunette Kamchatka" was placed. This was a smaller fortification that was designed to protect several artillery pieces.
At this time the Russian cartographers marked all landmarks in and around this ridge as "Fort Malakoff". This included several large grave mounds and the same ridge lying in front known as Mamelon ("vert Mamelon"). The name "Fortmortal Malakoff" (or French "Fort Malakoff", Russian "Mal'akhoff") was retained after the war in Western literature covering the Crimean War.
The harbour of Sevastopol, formed by the estuary of the Chernaya, was protected against attack by sea not only by the Russian war-vessels, afloat and sunken, but also by heavy granite forts on the south side and by the defensive works. For the town itself and the Karabelnaya suburb the plans for the works had been laid down for years. The Malakoff Tower covered the suburb, flanked on either side by the Redan and the Little Redan. The town was covered by a line of works marked by a flagstaff and central bastions, and separated from the Redan by the inner harbour.
Lieutenant Colonel Eduard Totleben, the Russian chief engineer, had begun work on these sites early in the war. Through daily efforts to rebuild, re-arm and improve the fortifications, he was able to finally connect them with a continuous defence system enceinte. Yet early in October 1854, Sevastopol was not the towering fortress it later became, and Totleben himself maintained that had the allies assaulted it immediately, they would have succeeded in taking the city. There were, however, many reasons against them doing so at the time, and it was not until 17 October that the first attack took place.
section:background :background1784 1784fortif fortifaround aroundsevastopol sevastopoldedic dedicprotect protectharbour harbourentranc entrancciti citinaval navalbase baseposit positclose closefeatur featurconstruct constructfortif fortifsurround surroundhill hillplan planearli earli1837 1837time timebattl battlbasic basicfacil facilroadway roadwaycomplet completnorth northside sidelong longwestward-fac westward-facbay baysouth southcentral centralanchor anchordefenc defencsystem systemmalakoff-kurgan malakoff-kurganridg ridgsituat situatsoutheast southeastciti citiconsist consisttwo-stori two-storistone stonetower towerlimeston limestonrussian russianplace placefive fiveheavi heavi18-pounder 18-poundercannon cannonbegin beginsieg siegmysteri mysterisurround surroundtower toweralthough althoughknown knowntower towerbuilt builttime timestart startwar warhistor historrecord recordshow showexact exactoccur occurmention mentionmade madecontemporari contemporaridescript descriptsieg siegaddit additdiffer differspell spelltranslat translatrussian russianinclud includмалахова малаховабашня башняknown knowntower towerorigin originbuilt builtexpand expandsevastopol sevastopolmerchant merchantlater latertaken takenrussian russiannavi navitower towerdiamet diametheight heightcentr centrbatteri batteriknown known`` ``lunett lunettkamchatka kamchatka'' ''place placesmaller smallerfortif fortifdesign designprotect protectsever severartilleri artilleripiec piectime timerussian russiancartograph cartographmark marklandmark landmarkaround aroundridg ridg`` ``fort fortmalakoff malakoff'' ''includ includsever severlarg larggrave gravemound moundridg ridglie liefront frontknown knownmamelon mamelon`` ``vert vertmamelon mamelon'' ''name name`` ``fortmort fortmortmalakoff malakoff'' ''french french`` ``fort fortmalakoff malakoff'' ''russian russian`` ``mal'akhoff mal'akhoff'' ''retain retainwar warwestern westernliteratur literaturcover covercrimean crimeanwar warharbour harboursevastopol sevastopolform formestuari estuarichernaya chernayaprotect protectattack attacksea searussian russianwar-vessel war-vesselafloat afloatsunken sunkenalso alsoheavi heavigranit granitfort fortsouth southside sidedefens defenswork worktown townkarabelnaya karabelnayasuburb suburbplan planwork worklaid laidyear yearmalakoff malakofftower towercover coversuburb suburbflank flankeither eitherside sideredan redanlittl littlredan redantown towncover coverline linework workmark markflagstaff flagstaffcentral centralbastion bastionsepar separredan redaninner innerharbour harbourlieuten lieutencolonel coloneleduard eduardtotleben totlebenrussian russianchief chiefengin enginbegun begunwork worksite siteearli earliwar wardaili dailieffort effortrebuild rebuildre-arm re-armimprov improvfortif fortifabl ablfinal finalconnect connectcontinu continudefenc defencsystem systemenceint enceintyet yetearli earlioctob octob1854 1854sevastopol sevastopoltower towerfortress fortresslater laterbecam becamtotleben totlebenmaintain maintainalli alliassault assaultimmedi immediwould wouldsucceed succeedtake takeciti citihowev howevmani manireason reasontime time17 17octob octobfirst firstattack attacktook tookplace | 157665 | Battle of Malakoff | 1855 in France,Battles involving France,Military history of Sevastopol,1855 in the Russian Empire,Conflicts in 1855,Taurida Governorate,Battles of the Crimean War |
157665-3 | Battle of Malakoff
Section::::Battle.
Throughout 17 October, a tremendous artillery duel raged. The Russian artillery was initially successful, the French corps fell under siege and suffered heavy losses. The advancing fleet engaging the harbour batteries also suffered a loss of 500 men and several ships were heavily damaged. Still, British siege batteries managed to silence the Malakoff and its annexes, after having succeeded in hitting a munitions depot and, if failure had not occurred at the other points of attack, an assault might have succeeded. As it was, by daybreak, Totleben's engineers had repaired and improved the damaged works.
For months the siege of Sevastopol continued. During July the Russians lost on an average of 250 men a day, and finally the Russians decided to break the stalemate and gradual attrition of their army. Gorchakov and the field army were to make another attack at the Chernaya, the first since the Inkerman. On 16 August, both Pavel Liprandi and Read's corps furiously attacked the 37,000 French and Sardinian troops on the heights above Traktir Bridge. The assailants came on with the greatest determination, but they were ultimately unsuccessful. At the end of the day, the Russians drew off leaving 260 officers and 8,000 men dead or dying on the field; the French and British only lost 1,700. With this defeat the last chance of saving Sevastopol vanished.
The same day, a determined bombardment once more reduced the Malakoff and its dependencies to impotence, and it was with absolute confidence in the result that Marshal Pélissier planned the final assault. At noon on 8 September 1855, the whole of Bosquet's corps suddenly attacked all along the right sector. The fighting was of the most desperate kind: the French attack on the Malakoff was successful, but the other two French attacks were repelled. The British attack on the Redan was initially successful, but a Russian counterattack drove the British out of the bastion after two hours after the French attacks on the Flagstaff Bastion (left of the Great Redan) were repelled. With the failure of the French attacks in the left sector but with the fall of the Malakoff in French hands further attacks were cancelled. The Russian positions around the city were no longer tenable.
Throughout the day the bombardment mowed down the massed Russian soldiers along the whole line. The fall of the Malakoff was the end of the siege of the city. That night the Russians fled over the bridges to the north side, and on 9 September the victors took possession of the empty and burning city. The losses in the last assault had been very heavy: for the Allies over 10,000 men, for the Russians 13,000. At least nineteen generals had fallen on the final day and with the capture of Sevastopol the war was decided. No serious operations were undertaken against Gorchakov who, with the field army and the remnants of the garrison, held the heights at Mackenzie's Farm. But Kinburn was attacked by sea and, from the naval point of view, became the first instance of the employment of Ironclad warships. An armistice was agreed upon on 26 February and the Treaty of Paris was signed on 30 March 1856.
section:battl :battlthroughout throughout17 17octob octobtremend tremendartilleri artilleriduel duelrage ragerussian russianartilleri artilleriiniti initisuccess successfrench frenchcorp corpfell fellsieg siegsuffer sufferheavi heaviloss lossadvanc advancfleet fleetengag engagharbour harbourbatteri batterialso alsosuffer sufferloss loss500 500men mensever severship shipheavili heavilidamag damagstill stillbritish britishsieg siegbatteri batterimanag managsilenc silencmalakoff malakoffannex annexsucceed succeedhit hitmunit munitdepot depotfailur failuroccur occurpoint pointattack attackassault assaultmight mightsucceed succeeddaybreak daybreaktotleben totleben's 'sengin enginrepair repairimprov improvdamag damagwork workmonth monthsieg siegsevastopol sevastopolcontinu continujuli julirussian russianlost lostaverag averag250 250men menday dayfinal finalrussian russiandecid decidbreak breakstalem stalemgradual gradualattrit attritarmi armigorchakov gorchakovfield fieldarmi armimake makeanoth anothattack attackchernaya chernayafirst firstsinc sincinkerman inkerman16 16august augustpavel pavelliprandi liprandiread read's 'scorp corpfurious furiousattack attack37,000 37,000french frenchsardinian sardiniantroop troopheight heighttraktir traktirbridg bridgassail assailcame camegreatest greatestdetermin determinultim ultimunsuccess unsuccessend endday dayrussian russiandrew drewleav leav260 260offic offic8,000 8,000men mendead deaddie diefield fieldfrench frenchbritish britishlost lost1,700 1,700defeat defeatlast lastchanc chancsave savesevastopol sevastopolvanish vanishday daydetermin determinbombard bombardreduc reducmalakoff malakoffdepend dependimpot impotabsolut absolutconfid confidresult resultmarshal marshalpélissier pélissierplan planfinal finalassault assaultnoon noon8 8septemb septemb1855 1855whole wholebosquet bosquet's 'scorp corpsudden suddenattack attackalong alongright rightsector sectorfight fightdesper desperkind kindfrench frenchattack attackmalakoff malakoffsuccess successtwo twofrench frenchattack attackrepel repelbritish britishattack attackredan redaniniti initisuccess successrussian russiancounterattack counterattackdrove drovebritish britishbastion bastiontwo twohour hourfrench frenchattack attackflagstaff flagstaffbastion bastionleft leftgreat greatredan redanrepel repelfailur failurfrench frenchattack attackleft leftsector sectorfall fallmalakoff malakofffrench frenchhand handattack attackcancel cancelrussian russianposit positaround aroundciti citilonger longertenabl tenablthroughout throughoutday daybombard bombardmow mowmass massrussian russiansoldier soldieralong alongwhole wholeline linefall fallmalakoff malakoffend endsieg siegciti citinight nightrussian russianfled fledbridg bridgnorth northside side9 9septemb septembvictor victortook tookpossess possessempti emptiburn burnciti citiloss losslast lastassault assaultheavi heavialli alli10,000 10,000men menrussian russian13,000 13,000least leastnineteen nineteengeneral generalfallen fallenfinal finalday daycaptur captursevastopol sevastopolwar wardecid decidserious seriousoper operundertaken undertakengorchakov gorchakovfield fieldarmi armiremnant remnantgarrison garrisonheld heldheight heightmackenzi mackenzi's 'sfarm farmkinburn kinburnattack attacksea seanaval navalpoint pointview viewbecam becamfirst firstinstanc instancemploy employironclad ironcladwarship warshiparmistic armisticagre agreupon upon26 26februari februaritreati treatipari parisign sign30 30march march1856 | 157665 | Battle of Malakoff | 1855 in France,Battles involving France,Military history of Sevastopol,1855 in the Russian Empire,Conflicts in 1855,Taurida Governorate,Battles of the Crimean War |
157665-4 | Battle of Malakoff
Section::::Order of Battle, 8th September 1855.
Right to left
French right sector (French 2nd Corps under GdD Bosquet)
BULLET::::- Little Redan: 3rd Division (GdD Dulac) - 17th Chasseurs, 10th, 57th, 61st and 85th Line, with 2nd brigade, 2nd Division of the Reserve Corps (GdB Jonquière) attached - 15th and 95th Line, and the Chasseurs of the Guard also attached
BULLET::::- Curtain wall between Malakoff and Little Redan: 4th Division (GdD La Motte Rouge) - 4th Chasseurs, 49th, 86th, 91st and 100th line, with Imperial Guard infantry brigade (GdB Uhrich) attached - 1st and 2nd Guard Grenadiers (1 Bn each) and 1st and 2nd Guard Voltigeurs (1 Bn each)
BULLET::::- Malakoff: 1st Division (GdD MacMahon) - 1st Chasseurs; 7th, 20th, and 27th Line, and 1st Zouaves, with 1st brigade, 2nd Division (GdB Wimpffen) attached - Tirailleurs Algerien, 3rd Zouaves and 50th Line, and the Guard Zouaves (two battalions under Colonel Jannin) also attached
British sector (see Battle of the Great Redan)
French left sector (French 1st Corps under GdD La Salles)
BULLET::::- Bastion du Mat (Flagstaff bastion): 1st Division (GdD D'Autemarre) - 5th Chasseurs, 19th, 26th, 39th and 74th Line, with Cialdini's Sardinian brigade attached
BULLET::::- Central Bastion: 2nd Division (GdD Levaillant) - 9th Chasseurs, 21st, 42nd, 46th and 80th Line, with 3rd Division (GdD Paté) - 6th Chasseurs, 28th and 98th Line, and 1st and 2nd Foreign Legion, and 4th Division (GdD Lefevre) - 10th Chasseurs, 14th, 18th, 43rd and 79th Line in reserve
BULLET::::- Covering the left flank - 30th and 35th Line (detached from other commands)
section:order :orderbattl battl8th 8thseptemb septemb1855 1855right rightleft leftfrench frenchright rightsector sectorfrench french2nd 2ndcorp corpgdd gddbosquet bosquetbullet bullet:- :-littl littlredan redan3rd 3rddivis divisgdd gdddulac dulac17th 17thchasseur chasseur10th 10th57th 57th61st 61st85th 85thline line2nd 2ndbrigad brigad2nd 2nddivis divisreserv reservcorp corpgdb gdbjonquièr jonquièrattach attach15th 15th95th 95thline linechasseur chasseurguard guardalso alsoattach attachbullet bullet:- :-curtain curtainwall wallmalakoff malakofflittl littlredan redan4th 4thdivis divisgdd gddla lamott mottroug roug4th 4thchasseur chasseur49th 49th86th 86th91st 91st100th 100thline lineimperi imperiguard guardinfantri infantribrigad brigadgdb gdbuhrich uhrichattach attach1st 1st2nd 2ndguard guardgrenadi grenadi1 1bn bn1st 1st2nd 2ndguard guardvoltigeur voltigeur1 1bn bnbullet bullet:- :-malakoff malakoff1st 1stdivis divisgdd gddmacmahon macmahon1st 1stchasseur chasseur7th 7th20th 20th27th 27thline line1st 1stzouav zouav1st 1stbrigad brigad2nd 2nddivis divisgdb gdbwimpffen wimpffenattach attachtirailleur tirailleuralgerien algerien3rd 3rdzouav zouav50th 50thline lineguard guardzouav zouavtwo twobattalion battalioncolonel coloneljannin janninalso alsoattach attachbritish britishsector sectorsee seebattl battlgreat greatredan redanfrench frenchleft leftsector sectorfrench french1st 1stcorp corpgdd gddla lasall sallbullet bullet:- :-bastion bastiondu dumat matflagstaff flagstaffbastion bastion1st 1stdivis divisgdd gddd'autemarr d'autemarr5th 5thchasseur chasseur19th 19th26th 26th39th 39th74th 74thline linecialdini cialdini's 'ssardinian sardinianbrigad brigadattach attachbullet bullet:- :-central centralbastion bastion2nd 2nddivis divisgdd gddlevail levail9th 9thchasseur chasseur21st 21st42nd 42nd46th 46th80th 80thline line3rd 3rddivis divisgdd gddpaté paté6th 6thchasseur chasseur28th 28th98th 98thline line1st 1st2nd 2ndforeign foreignlegion legion4th 4thdivis divisgdd gddlefevr lefevr10th 10thchasseur chasseur14th 14th18th 18th43rd 43rd79th 79thline linereserv reservbullet bullet:- :-cover coverleft leftflank flank30th 30th35th 35thline linedetach detachcommand | 157665 | Battle of Malakoff | 1855 in France,Battles involving France,Military history of Sevastopol,1855 in the Russian Empire,Conflicts in 1855,Taurida Governorate,Battles of the Crimean War |
157665-5 | Battle of Malakoff
Section::::Aftermath.
At first sight Russia would seem to be almost invulnerable to a sea power, and no first success, however crushing, could have humbled Nicholas I. Indeed, the mere capture of Sevastopol would not have been strategically decisive. However, as the Tsar had decided to defend it at all costs and with unlimited resources, it became an unpleasant defeat, especially as the Allies had reached victory with limited resources.
During the nearly one-year siege of Sevastopol in the Crimean War, the fortifications on the Malakhov were hotly contested as they overlooked the whole city and the inner harbour. After the success of the French troops under the command of Marshal Pelissier, later the Duke of Malakoff (French: Duc de Malakoff), and General Patrice de Mac-Mahon, the Russian defenders evacuated the entire city on 8 September 1855, bringing a climax to the war.
As the fortress enabled the control of the Black Sea port of Sevastopol, the Russian forces destroyed all of their equipment and withdrew, leaving Russia with no more military fortifications on the Black Sea. The long-awaited Russian domination of the inland sea to obtain free passage through the Bosporus to the Mediterranean (and beyond) was now not possible.
In terms of logistics, the British and French had a significant advantage over the Russians as they were able to receive supplies from the sea, while the Russians had to bring supplies over the underdeveloped and dangerous desert tracks of southern Russia. The Russians lost many men and horses in bringing supplies to Sevastopol. The hasty nature, too, of the fortifications, which were damaged every day during the siege by the fire of a thousand guns, and had to be rebuilt every night, required large, unprotected working parties and the losses amongst these were correspondingly heavy. These losses exhausted Russia's resources and when they were forced to employ large bodies of militia in the Battle of Traktir Bridge, it was obvious that the end was at hand. The short stories of Leo Tolstoy, who was present at the siege, give a graphic picture of the war from the Russian point of view, portraying the miseries of the desert march, the still greater miseries of life in the casemates, and the almost daily ordeal of manning the lines, under shell-fire, against an assault which might or might not come.
Among the seven surviving defenders of a stone tower on the Malakov Kurgan, which were found by French troops among the dead, was the seriously wounded Vasily Kolchak, the father of Aleksandr Vasiliyevich Kolchak. Kolchak would later become the head of all the counter-revolutionary anti-communist White forces during the Russian Civil War.
As a result of press coverage of the siege of the tower, Malakhov Kurgan became a household name in Europe and many large and expensive towers in Western Europe were named after it. Among these were a number of stone mining towers in the Ruhrgebiet, the so-called caponier Fort Malakoff in Mainz, and the yellow sandstone Malakoff Tower in the city of Luxembourg. In addition, the Malakoff cake was named after the Duke of Malakoff, as was a cheese dish in parts of Switzerland. In France, the battle was officially commemorated in a rare way: apart from the Battle of Magenta (in the Italian Campaign), it was the only one of Emperor Napoleon III's exploits to result in the awarding of a victory title (both of ducal rank); this distinction was bestowed upon Marshal Pélissier. A suburb of Paris was also named after this battle, as well as the Avenue de Malakoff. Malakhov Kurgan, where it was fought, now contains the Eternal Fire, commemorating the Siege of Sevastopol during World War II. A branch of Franz Roubaud's great panorama representing the battle of 1855 is also located there.
section:aftermath :aftermathfirst firstsight sightrussia russiawould wouldseem seemalmost almostinvulner invulnersea seapower powerfirst firstsuccess successhowev howevcrush crushcould couldhumbl humblnichola nicholainde indemere merecaptur captursevastopol sevastopolwould wouldstrateg strategdecis decishowev howevtsar tsardecid deciddefend defendcost costunlimit unlimitresourc resourcbecam becamunpleas unpleasdefeat defeatespeci especialli allireach reachvictori victorilimit limitresourc resourcnear nearone-year one-yearsieg siegsevastopol sevastopolcrimean crimeanwar warfortif fortifmalakhov malakhovhot hotcontest contestoverlook overlookwhole wholeciti citiinner innerharbour harboursuccess successfrench frenchtroop troopcommand commandmarshal marshalpelissi pelissilater laterduke dukemalakoff malakofffrench frenchduc ducde demalakoff malakoffgeneral generalpatric patricde demac-mahon mac-mahonrussian russiandefend defendevacu evacuentir entirciti citi8 8septemb septemb1855 1855bring bringclimax climaxwar warfortress fortressenabl enablcontrol controlblack blacksea seaport portsevastopol sevastopolrussian russianforc forcdestroy destroyequip equipwithdrew withdrewleav leavrussia russiamilitari militarifortif fortifblack blacksea sealong-await long-awaitrussian russiandomin domininland inlandsea seaobtain obtainfree freepassag passagbosporus bosporusmediterranean mediterraneanbeyond beyondpossibl possiblterm termlogist logistbritish britishfrench frenchsignific significadvantag advantagrussian russianabl ablreceiv receivsuppli supplisea searussian russianbring bringsuppli suppliunderdevelop underdevelopdanger dangerdesert deserttrack tracksouthern southernrussia russiarussian russianlost lostmani manimen menhors horsbring bringsuppli supplisevastopol sevastopolhasti hastinatur naturfortif fortifdamag damageveri everiday daysieg siegfire firethousand thousandgun gunrebuilt rebuilteveri everinight nightrequir requirlarg largunprotect unprotectwork workparti partiloss lossamongst amongstcorrespond correspondheavi heaviloss lossexhaust exhaustrussia russia's 'sresourc resourcforc forcemploy employlarg largbodi bodimilitia militiabattl battltraktir traktirbridg bridgobvious obviousend endhand handshort shortstori storileo leotolstoy tolstoypresent presentsieg sieggive givegraphic graphicpictur picturwar warrussian russianpoint pointview viewportray portraymiseri miseridesert desertmarch marchstill stillgreater greatermiseri miserilife lifecasem casemalmost almostdaili dailiordeal ordealman manline lineshell-fir shell-firassault assaultmight mightmight mightcome comeamong amongseven sevensurviv survivdefend defendstone stonetower towermalakov malakovkurgan kurganfound foundfrench frenchtroop troopamong amongdead deadserious seriouswound woundvasili vasilikolchak kolchakfather fatheraleksandr aleksandrvasiliyevich vasiliyevichkolchak kolchakkolchak kolchakwould wouldlater laterbecom becomhead headcounter-revolutionari counter-revolutionarianti-communist anti-communistwhite whiteforc forcrussian russiancivil civilwar warresult resultpress presscoverag coveragsieg siegtower towermalakhov malakhovkurgan kurganbecam becamhousehold householdname nameeurop europmani manilarg largexpens expenstower towerwestern westerneurop europname nameamong amongnumber numberstone stonemine minetower towerruhrgebiet ruhrgebietso-cal so-calcaponi caponifort fortmalakoff malakoffmainz mainzyellow yellowsandston sandstonmalakoff malakofftower towerciti citiluxembourg luxembourgaddit additmalakoff malakoffcake cakename nameduke dukemalakoff malakoffchees cheesdish dishpart partswitzerland switzerlandfranc francbattl battloffici officicommemor commemorrare rareway wayapart apartbattl battlmagenta magentaitalian italiancampaign campaignone oneemperor emperornapoleon napoleoniii iii's 'sexploit exploitresult resultaward awardvictori victorititl titlducal ducalrank rankdistinct distinctbestow bestowupon uponmarshal marshalpélissier pélissiersuburb suburbpari parialso alsoname namebattl battlwell wellavenu avenude demalakoff malakoffmalakhov malakhovkurgan kurganfought foughtcontain containetern eternfire firecommemor commemorsieg siegsevastopol sevastopolworld worldwar warii iibranch branchfranz franzroubaud roubaud's 'sgreat greatpanorama panoramarepres represbattl battl1855 1855also alsolocat | 157665 | Battle of Malakoff | 1855 in France,Battles involving France,Military history of Sevastopol,1855 in the Russian Empire,Conflicts in 1855,Taurida Governorate,Battles of the Crimean War |
157664-1 | Physiological plant disorder
Physiological plant disorders are caused by non-pathological conditions such as poor light, adverse weather, water-logging, phytotoxic compounds or a lack of nutrients, and affect the functioning of the plant system. Physiological disorders are distinguished from plant diseases caused by pathogens, such as a virus or fungus. While the symptoms of physiological disorders may appear disease-like, they can usually be prevented by altering environmental conditions. However, once a plant shows symptoms of a physiological disorder it is likely that, that season’s growth or yield will be reduced.
physiologplant plantdisord disordcaus causnon-patholog non-pathologcondit conditpoor poorlight lightadvers adversweather weatherwater-log water-logphytotox phytotoxcompound compoundlack lacknutrient nutrientaffect affectfunction functionplant plantsystem systemphysiolog physiologdisord disorddistinguish distinguishplant plantdiseas diseascaus causpathogen pathogenvirus virusfungus fungussymptom symptomphysiolog physiologdisord disordmay mayappear appeardisease-lik disease-likusual usualprevent preventalter alterenvironment environmentcondit condithowev howevplant plantshow showsymptom symptomphysiolog physiologdisord disordlike likeseason season’ ’growth growthyield yieldreduc | 157664 | Physiological plant disorder | Physiological plant disorders |
157664-2 | Physiological plant disorder
Section::::Diagnosis of disorders.
Diagnosis of the cause of a physiological disorder (or disease) can be difficult, but there are many web-based guides that may assist with this. Examples are: "Abiotic plant disorders: Symptoms, signs and solutions"; "Georgia Corn Diagnostic Guide"; "Diagnosing Plant Problems" (Kentucky); and "Diagnosing Plant Problems" (Virginia).
Some general tips to diagnosing plant disorders:
BULLET::::- Examine where symptoms first appear on a plant—on new leaves, old leaves or all over?
BULLET::::- Note the pattern of any discolouration or yellowing—is it all over, between the veins or around the edges? If only the veins are yellow deficiency is probably not involved.
BULLET::::- Note general patterns rather than looking at individual plants—are the symptoms distributed throughout a group of plants of the same type growing together. In the case of a deficiency all of the plants should be similarly effected, although distribution will depend on past treatments applied to the soil.
BULLET::::- Soil analysis, such as determining pH, can help to confirm the presence of physiological disorders.
BULLET::::- Consider recent conditions, such as heavy rains, dry spells, frosts, etc., may also help to determine the cause of plant disorders.
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157664-3 | Physiological plant disorder
Section::::Weather damage.
Frost and cold are major causes of crop damage to tender plants, although hardy plants can also suffer if new growth is exposed to a hard frost following a period of warm weather. Symptoms will often appear overnight, affecting many types of plants. Leaves and stems may turn black, and buds and flowers may be discoloured, and frosted blooms may not produce fruit. Many annual plants, or plants grown in frost free areas, can suffer from damage when the air temperature drops below 40 degrees Fahrenheit (4 degrees Celsius). Tropical plants may begin to experience cold damage when the temperature is 42 to 48 °F (5 to 9 °C), symptoms include wilting of the top of the stems and/or leaves, and blackening or softening of the plant tissue.
Frost or cold damage can be avoided by ensuring that tender plants are properly hardened before planting, and that they are not planted too early in the season, before the risk of frost has passed. Avoid planting susceptible plants in frost pockets, or where they will receive early morning sun. Protect young buds and bloom with horticultural fleece if frost is forecast.
Cold, drying easterly winds can also severely inhibit spring growth even without an actual frost, thus adequate shelter or the use of windbreaks is important.
Drought can cause plants to suffer from water stress and wilt. Adequate irrigation is required during prolonged hot, dry periods. Rather than shallow daily watering, during a drought water should be directed towards the roots, ensuring that the soil is thoroughly soaked two or three times a week. Mulches also help preserve soil moisture and keep roots cool.
Heavy rains, particularly after prolonged dry periods, can also cause roots to split, onion saddleback (splitting at the base), tomatoes split and potatoes to become deformed or hollow. Using mulches or adding organic matter such as leaf mold, compost or well rotted manure to the soil will help to act as a 'buffer' between sudden changes in
conditions. Water-logging can occur on poorly drained soils, particularly following heavy rains. Plants can become yellow and stunted, and will tend to be more prone to drought and diseases. Improving drainage will help to alleviate this problem.
Hail can cause damage to soft skinned fruits, and may also allow brown rot or other fungi to penetrate the plant. Brown spot markings or lines on one side of a mature apple are indicative of a spring hailstorm.
Plants affected by salt stress are able to take water from soil, due to an osmotic imbalance between soil and plant.
section:weather :weatherdamag damagfrost frostcold coldmajor majorcaus causcrop cropdamag damagtender tenderplant plantalthough althoughhardi hardiplant plantalso alsosuffer suffernew newgrowth growthexpos exposhard hardfrost frostfollow followperiod periodwarm warmweather weathersymptom symptomoften oftenappear appearovernight overnightaffect affectmani manitype typeplant plantleav leavstem stemmay mayturn turnblack blackbud budflower flowermay maydiscolour discolourfrost frostbloom bloommay mayproduc producfruit fruitmani maniannual annualplant plantplant plantgrown grownfrost frostfree freearea areasuffer sufferdamag damagair airtemperatur temperaturdrop drop40 40degre degrefahrenheit fahrenheit4 4degre degrecelsius celsiustropic tropicplant plantmay maybegin beginexperi expericold colddamag damagtemperatur temperatur42 4248 48°f °f5 59 9°c °csymptom symptominclud includwilt wilttop topstem stemand/or and/orleav leavblacken blackensoften softenplant planttissu tissufrost frostcold colddamag damagavoid avoidensur ensurtender tenderplant plantproper properharden hardenplant plantplant plantearli earliseason seasonrisk riskfrost frostpass passavoid avoidplant plantsuscept susceptplant plantfrost frostpocket pocketreceiv receivearli earlimorn mornsun sunprotect protectyoung youngbud budbloom bloomhorticultur horticulturfleec fleecfrost frostforecast forecastcold colddri drieaster easterwind windalso alsosever severinhibit inhibitspring springgrowth growtheven evenwithout withoutactual actualfrost frostthus thusadequ adequshelter shelteruse usewindbreak windbreakimport importdrought droughtcaus causplant plantsuffer sufferwater waterstress stresswilt wiltadequ adequirrig irrigrequir requirprolong prolonghot hotdri driperiod periodrather rathershallow shallowdaili dailiwater waterdrought droughtwater waterdirect directtoward towardroot rootensur ensursoil soilthorough thoroughsoak soaktwo twothree threetime timeweek weekmulch mulchalso alsohelp helppreserv preservsoil soilmoistur moisturkeep keeproot rootcool coolheavi heavirain rainparticular particularprolong prolongdri driperiod periodalso alsocaus causroot rootsplit splitonion onionsaddleback saddlebacksplit splitbase basetomato tomatosplit splitpotato potatobecom becomdeform deformhollow hollowuse usemulch mulchad adorgan organmatter matterleaf leafmold moldcompost compostwell wellrot rotmanur manursoil soilhelp helpact actbuffer buffersudden suddenchang changcondit conditwater-log water-logoccur occurpoor poordrain drainsoil soilparticular particularfollow followheavi heavirain rainplant plantbecom becomyellow yellowstunt stunttend tendprone pronedrought droughtdiseas diseasimprov improvdrainag drainaghelp helpallevi alleviproblem problemhail hailcaus causdamag damagsoft softskin skinfruit fruitmay mayalso alsoallow allowbrown brownrot rotfungi fungipenetr penetrplant plantbrown brownspot spotmark markline lineone oneside sidematur maturappl applindic indicspring springhailstorm hailstormplant plantaffect affectsalt saltstress stressabl abltake takewater watersoil soildue dueosmot osmotimbal imbalsoil soilplant | 157664 | Physiological plant disorder | Physiological plant disorders |
157664-4 | Physiological plant disorder
Section::::Nutrient deficiencies.
Poor growth and a variety of disorders such as leaf discolouration (chlorosis) can be caused by a shortage of one or more plant nutrients. Poor plant uptake of a nutrient from the soil (or other growing medium) may be due to an absolute shortage of that element in the growing medium, or because that element is present in a form that is not available to the plant. The latter can be caused by incorrect pH, shortage of water, poor root growth or an excess of another nutrient. Plant nutrient deficiencies can be avoided or corrected using a variety of approaches including the consultation of experts on-site, the use of soil and plant-tissue testing services, the application of prescription-blend fertilizers, the application of fresh or well-decomposed organic matter, and the use of biological systems such as cover crops, intercropping, improved fallows, ley cropping, permaculture, or crop rotation.
Nutrient (or mineral) deficiencies include:
BULLET::::- Boron deficiency
BULLET::::- Calcium deficiency
BULLET::::- Iron deficiency
BULLET::::- Magnesium deficiency
BULLET::::- Manganese deficiency
BULLET::::- Molybdenum deficiency
BULLET::::- Nitrogen deficiency
BULLET::::- Phosphorus deficiency
BULLET::::- Potassium deficiency
BULLET::::- Zinc deficiency
section:nutrient :nutrientdefici deficipoor poorgrowth growthvarieti varietidisord disordleaf leafdiscolour discolourchlorosi chlorosicaus causshortag shortagone oneplant plantnutrient nutrientpoor poorplant plantuptak uptaknutrient nutrientsoil soilgrow growmedium mediummay maydue dueabsolut absolutshortag shortagelement elementgrow growmedium mediumelement elementpresent presentform formavail availplant plantlatter lattercaus causincorrect incorrectph phshortag shortagwater waterpoor poorroot rootgrowth growthexcess excessanoth anothnutrient nutrientplant plantnutrient nutrientdefici deficiavoid avoidcorrect correctuse usevarieti varietiapproach approachinclud includconsult consultexpert experton-sit on-situse usesoil soilplant-tissu plant-tissutest testservic servicapplic applicprescription-blend prescription-blendfertil fertilapplic applicfresh freshwell-decompos well-decomposorgan organmatter matteruse usebiolog biologsystem systemcover covercrop cropintercrop intercropimprov improvfallow fallowley leycrop croppermacultur permaculturcrop croprotat rotatnutrient nutrientminer minerdefici deficiinclud includbullet bullet:- :-boron borondefici deficibullet bullet:- :-calcium calciumdefici deficibullet bullet:- :-iron irondefici deficibullet bullet:- :-magnesium magnesiumdefici deficibullet bullet:- :-manganes manganesdefici deficibullet bullet:- :-molybdenum molybdenumdefici deficibullet bullet:- :-nitrogen nitrogendefici deficibullet bullet:- :-phosphorus phosphorusdefici deficibullet bullet:- :-potassium potassiumdefici deficibullet bullet:- :-zinc zincdefici | 157664 | Physiological plant disorder | Physiological plant disorders |
157655-1 | Prunella Scales
Prunella Margaret Scales ("née" Illingworth; born 22 June 1932) is an English actress best known for her role as Basil Fawlty's wife Sybil in the BBC comedy "Fawlty Towers" and her BAFTA award-nominated role as Queen Elizabeth II in "A Question of Attribution" ("Screen One", BBC 1991) by Alan Bennett.
prunellamargaret margaretscale scale`` ``née née'' ''illingworth illingworthborn born22 22june june1932 1932english englishactress actressbest bestknown knownrole rolebasil basilfawlti fawlti's 'swife wifesybil sybilbbc bbccomedi comedi`` ``fawlti fawltitower tower'' ''bafta baftaaward-nomin award-nominrole rolequeen queenelizabeth elizabethii ii`` ``question questionattribut attribut'' ''`` ``screen screenone one'' ''bbc bbc1991 1991alan alanbennett | 157655 | Prunella Scales | English stage actresses,1932 births,English television actresses,People from Mole Valley (district),21st-century English actresses,People with Alzheimer's disease,English radio actresses,English voice actresses,Actresses from Surrey,English film actresses,British people of English descent,Commanders of the Order of the British Empire,Labour Party (UK) people,Television personalities from Surrey,Waterways campaigners of the United Kingdom,Living people,20th-century English actresses |
157655-2 | Prunella Scales
Section::::Early life.
Scales was born in Sutton Abinger, Surrey, the daughter of Catherine ("née" Scales), an actress, and John Richardson Illingworth, a cotton salesman. She attended Moira House Girls School, Eastbourne. She had a younger brother, Timothy ("Timmo") Illingworth (1934–2017).
Scales' parents moved their family to Bucks Mill near Bideford in Devon in 1939 at the start of the Second World War. Scales herself (and her brother) were evacuated to Near Sawrey (then in Lancashire, now in Cumbria).
section:ear :earlife lifescale scaleborn bornsutton suttonabing abingsurrey surreydaughter daughtercatherin catherin`` ``née née'' ''scale scaleactress actressjohn johnrichardson richardsonillingworth illingworthcotton cottonsalesman salesmanattend attendmoira moirahous housgirl girlschool schooleastbourn eastbournyounger youngerbrother brothertimothi timothi`` ``timmo timmo'' ''illingworth illingworth1934–2017 1934–2017scale scaleparent parentmove movefamili familibuck buckmill millnear nearbideford bideforddevon devon1939 1939start startsecond secondworld worldwar warscale scalebrother brotherevacu evacunear nearsawrey sawreylancashir lancashircumbria | 157655 | Prunella Scales | English stage actresses,1932 births,English television actresses,People from Mole Valley (district),21st-century English actresses,People with Alzheimer's disease,English radio actresses,English voice actresses,Actresses from Surrey,English film actresses,British people of English descent,Commanders of the Order of the British Empire,Labour Party (UK) people,Television personalities from Surrey,Waterways campaigners of the United Kingdom,Living people,20th-century English actresses |
157655-3 | Prunella Scales
Section::::Career.
Scales started her career in 1951 as an assistant stage manager at the Bristol Old Vic. Throughout her career she has often been cast in comic roles. Her early work included the second UK adaptation of "Pride and Prejudice" (1952), "Hobson's Choice" (1954), "Room at the Top" (1959) and "Waltz of the Toreadors" (1962).
Her career break came with the early 1960s sitcom "Marriage Lines" starring opposite Richard Briers. In addition to "Fawlty Towers", she has had roles in BBC Radio 4 sitcoms, and comedy series including "After Henry", "Smelling of Roses" and "Ladies of Letters"; on television she starred in the London Weekend Television/Channel 4 series "Mapp & Lucia" based on the novels by E. F. Benson. She played Queen Elizabeth II in Alan Bennett's "A Question of Attribution".
In 1973, Scales was cast with Ronnie Barker in "One Man's Meat" which formed part of Barker's "Seven of One" series, also for the BBC. Her later film appearances include "Escape from the Dark" (1976), "The Hound of the Baskervilles" (1978), "The Boys From Brazil" (1978), "The Wicked Lady" (1983), "The Lonely Passion of Judith Hearne" (1987), "Stiff Upper Lips" (1997), "Howards End" (1992) and "Wolf" (1994). For the BBC Television Shakespeare production of "The Merry Wives of Windsor" (1982) she played Mistress Page and the "Theatre Night" series (BBC) she appeared with her husband Timothy West in the Joe Orton farce "What the Butler Saw" (1987) playing Mrs Prentice.
For ten years, Prunella appeared with Jane Horrocks in advertisements for UK supermarket chain Tesco. In 1996, Scales starred in the television film, "Lord of Misrule", alongside Richard Wilson, Emily Mortimer and Stephen Moyer. The film was directed by Guy Jenkins and filming took place in Fowey in Cornwall. Also in 1996, she appeared as Miss Bates in Jane Austen’s Emma. In 1997, Scales starred in Chris Barfoot's science-fiction film short "Phoenix" which was first aired in 1999 by NBC Universal's Sci Fi Channel. Scales played 'The Client', an evil government minister funding inter-genetic time travel experiments. The same year she played Dr. Minny Stinkler in the comedy film "Mad Cows", directed by Sara Sugarman. In 1993 Scales voiced Mrs Tiggy-Winkle in The World of Peter Rabbit and Friends.
In 2000 she appeared in the film "The Ghost of Greville Lodge" as Sarah. The same year she appeared as Eleanor Dunsall in Midsomer Murders Beyond the Grave. In 2001 she appeared in 2 episodes of Silent Witness, “Faith” as Mrs Parker. In 2003, she appeared as Hilda, "she who must be obeyed", wife of Horace Rumpole in four BBC Radio 4 plays, with Timothy West playing her fictional husband. Scales and West toured Australia at the same time in different productions. Scales appeared in a one-woman show called ""An Evening with Queen Victoria"", which also featured the tenor Ian Partridge singing songs written by Prince Albert.
Also in 2003, she voiced the speaking ("cawing") role of Magpie, the eponymous thief in a recording of Gioachino Rossini's opera "La gazza ladra" (The Thieving Magpie).
In 2006, she appeared alongside Academy Award winners Vanessa Redgrave and Maximilian Schell in the mini-series "The Shell Seekers".
On 16 November 2007, Scales appeared in "Children in Need", reprising her role as Sybil Fawlty, the new manager who wants to take over Hotel Babylon. She appeared in the audio play "The Youth of Old Age", produced in 2008 by the Wireless Theatre Company, and available to download free of charge on their website. She appeared in a production of "Carrie's War", the Nina Bawden novel, at the Apollo Theatre in 2009. In 2008, she appeared in Agatha Christie's, "A Pocket Full of Rye", as Mrs. Mackenzie.
John Cleese said in an interview on 8 May 2009 that the role of Sybil Fawlty was originally offered to Bridget Turner, who turned down the part, claiming "it wasn't right for her".
She starred in the 2011 British live-action 3D family comedy film "" as the titular character's Great Aunt Greta.
Scales appeared in a short audio story, "Dandruff Hits the Turtleneck", written by John Mayfield, and available for download.
She starred in a Virgin Short "Stranger Danger" alongside Roderick Cowie in 2012. In 2013 she made a guest appearance in the popular BBC radio comedy "Cabin Pressure" as Wendy Crieff, the mother of Captain Martin Crieff.
Alongside husband Timothy West she has appeared in "Great Canal Journeys" for Channel 4 every year since 2014. Stuart Heritage, writing for "The Guardian" in November 2016, commented that it "is ultimately a work about a devoted couple facing something huge together. It’s a beautiful, meditative programme". "An emotional but unrooted glimpse of life with dementia" was Christopher Howse's characterization in October 2018, writing for "The Telegraph".
section:career :careerscale scalestart startcareer career1951 1951assist assiststage stagemanag managbristol bristolold oldvic victhroughout throughoutcareer careeroften oftencast castcomic comicrole roleearli earliwork workinclud includsecond seconduk ukadapt adapt`` ``pride prideprejudic prejudic'' ''1952 1952`` ``hobson hobson's 'schoic choic'' ''1954 1954`` ``room roomtop top'' ''1959 1959`` ``waltz waltztoreador toreador'' ''1962 1962career careerbreak breakcame cameearli earli1960s 1960ssitcom sitcom`` ``marriag marriagline line'' ''star staropposit oppositrichard richardbrier brieraddit addit`` ``fawlti fawltitower tower'' ''role rolebbc bbcradio radio4 4sitcom sitcomcomedi comediseri seriinclud includ`` ``henri henri'' ''`` ``smell smellrose rose'' ''`` ``ladi ladiletter letter'' ''televis televisstar starlondon londonweekend weekendtelevision/channel television/channel4 4seri seri`` ``mapp mapplucia lucia'' ''base basenovel novele. e.f. f.benson bensonplay playqueen queenelizabeth elizabethii iialan alanbennett bennett's 's`` ``question questionattribut attribut'' ''1973 1973scale scalecast castronni ronnibarker barker`` ``one oneman man's 'smeat meat'' ''form formpart partbarker barker's 's`` ``seven sevenone one'' ''seri serialso alsobbc bbclater laterfilm filmappear appearinclud includ`` ``escap escapdark dark'' ''1976 1976`` ``hound houndbaskervill baskervill'' ''1978 1978`` ``boy boybrazil brazil'' ''1978 1978`` ``wick wickladi ladi'' ''1983 1983`` ``lone lonepassion passionjudith judithhearn hearn'' ''1987 1987`` ``stiff stiffupper upperlip lip'' ''1997 1997`` ``howard howardend end'' ''1992 1992`` ``wolf wolf'' ''1994 1994bbc bbctelevis televisshakespear shakespearproduct product`` ``merri merriwive wivewindsor windsor'' ''1982 1982play playmistress mistresspage page`` ``theatr theatrnight night'' ''seri seribbc bbcappear appearhusband husbandtimothi timothiwest westjoe joeorton ortonfarc farc`` ``butler butlersaw saw'' ''1987 1987play playmrs mrsprentic prenticten tenyear yearprunella prunellaappear appearjane janehorrock horrockadvertis advertisuk uksupermarket supermarketchain chaintesco tesco1996 1996scale scalestar startelevis televisfilm film`` ``lord lordmisrul misrul'' ''alongsid alongsidrichard richardwilson wilsonemili emilimortim mortimstephen stephenmoyer moyerfilm filmdirect directguy guyjenkin jenkinfilm filmtook tookplace placefowey foweycornwal cornwalalso also1996 1996appear appearmiss missbate batejane janeausten austen’ ’emma emma1997 1997scale scalestar starchris chrisbarfoot barfoot's 'sscience-fict science-fictfilm filmshort short`` ``phoenix phoenix'' ''first firstair air1999 1999nbc nbcunivers univers's 'ssci scifi fichannel channelscale scaleplay playthe theclient clientevil evilgovern governminist ministfund fundinter-genet inter-genettime timetravel travelexperi experiyear yearplay playdr. dr.minni minnistinkler stinklercomedi comedifilm film`` ``mad madcow cow'' ''direct directsara sarasugarman sugarman1993 1993scale scalevoic voicmrs mrstiggy-winkl tiggy-winklworld worldpeter peterrabbit rabbitfriend friend2000 2000appear appearfilm film`` ``ghost ghostgrevill grevilllodg lodg'' ''sarah sarahyear yearappear appeareleanor eleanordunsal dunsalmidsom midsommurder murderbeyond beyondgrave grave2001 2001appear appear2 2episod episodsilent silentwit wit“ “faith faith” ”mrs mrsparker parker2003 2003appear appearhilda hilda`` ``must mustobey obey'' ''wife wifehorac horacrumpol rumpolfour fourbbc bbcradio radio4 4play playtimothi timothiwest westplay playfiction fictionhusband husbandscale scalewest westtour touraustralia australiatime timediffer differproduct productscale scaleappear appearone-woman one-womanshow showcall call`` ``'' ''even evenqueen queenvictoria victoria'' '''' ''also alsofeatur featurtenor tenorian ianpartridg partridgsing singsong songwritten writtenprinc princalbert albertalso also2003 2003voic voicspeak speak`` ``caw caw'' ''role rolemagpi magpieponym eponymthief thiefrecord recordgioachino gioachinorossini rossini's 'sopera opera`` ``la lagazza gazzaladra ladra'' ''thiev thievmagpi magpi2006 2006appear appearalongsid alongsidacademi academiaward awardwinner winnervanessa vanessaredgrav redgravmaximilian maximilianschell schellmini-seri mini-seri`` ``shell shellseeker seeker'' ''16 16novemb novemb2007 2007scale scaleappear appear`` ``children childrenneed need'' ''repris reprisrole rolesybil sybilfawlti fawltinew newmanag managwant wanttake takehotel hotelbabylon babylonappear appearaudio audioplay play`` ``youth youthold oldage age'' ''produc produc2008 2008wireless wirelesstheatr theatrcompani companiavail availdownload downloadfree freecharg chargwebsit websitappear appearproduct product`` ``carri carri's 'swar war'' ''nina ninabawden bawdennovel novelapollo apollotheatr theatr2009 20092008 2008appear appearagatha agathachristi christi's 's`` ``pocket pocketfull fullrye rye'' ''mrs. mrs.mackenzi mackenzijohn johnclees cleessaid saidinterview interview8 8may may2009 2009role rolesybil sybilfawlti fawltiorigin originoffer offerbridget bridgetturner turnerturn turnpart partclaim claim`` ``n't n'tright right'' ''star star2011 2011british britishlive-act live-act3d 3dfamili familicomedi comedifilm film`` ``'' ''titular titularcharact charact's 'sgreat greataunt auntgreta gretascale scaleappear appearshort shortaudio audiostori stori`` ``dandruff dandruffhit hitturtleneck turtleneck'' ''written writtenjohn johnmayfield mayfieldavail availdownload downloadstar starvirgin virginshort short`` ``stranger strangerdanger danger'' ''alongsid alongsidroderick roderickcowi cowi2012 20122013 2013made madeguest guestappear appearpopular popularbbc bbcradio radiocomedi comedi`` ``cabin cabinpressur pressur'' ''wendi wendicrieff crieffmother mothercaptain captainmartin martincrieff crieffalongsid alongsidhusband husbandtimothi timothiwest westappear appear`` ``great greatcanal canaljourney journey'' ''channel channel4 4everi everiyear yearsinc sinc2014 2014stuart stuartheritag heritagwrite write`` ``guardian guardian'' ''novemb novemb2016 2016comment comment`` ``ultim ultimwork workdevot devotcoupl couplface facesometh somethhuge hugetogeth togeth’ ’beauti beautimedit meditprogramm programm'' ''`` ``emot emotunroot unrootglimps glimpslife lifedementia dementia'' ''christoph christophhows hows's 'scharacter characteroctob octob2018 2018write write`` ``telegraph telegraph'' | 157655 | Prunella Scales | English stage actresses,1932 births,English television actresses,People from Mole Valley (district),21st-century English actresses,People with Alzheimer's disease,English radio actresses,English voice actresses,Actresses from Surrey,English film actresses,British people of English descent,Commanders of the Order of the British Empire,Labour Party (UK) people,Television personalities from Surrey,Waterways campaigners of the United Kingdom,Living people,20th-century English actresses |
157655-4 | Prunella Scales
Section::::Personal life.
Scales is married to the actor Timothy West, with whom she has two sons; the elder is actor and director Samuel West. Their younger son Joseph participated in two episodes of "Great Canal Journeys" filmed in France. Scales also has a step-daughter, Juliet, by West's first marriage.
Her biography, "Prunella", written by Teresa Ransom, was published by UK publishing imprint John Murray in 2005.
She was appointed a Commander of the Order of the British Empire in the 1992 Birthday Honours List. Her husband received the same honour in the 1984 Birthday Honours List.
section:person :personlife lifescale scalemarri marriactor actortimothi timothiwest westtwo twoson sonelder elderactor actordirector directorsamuel samuelwest westyounger youngerson sonjoseph josephparticip participtwo twoepisod episod`` ``great greatcanal canaljourney journey'' ''film filmfranc francscale scalealso alsostep-daught step-daughtjuliet julietwest west's 'sfirst firstmarriag marriagbiographi biographi`` ``prunella prunella'' ''written writtenteresa teresaransom ransompublish publishuk ukpublish publishimprint imprintjohn johnmurray murray2005 2005appoint appointcommand commandorder orderbritish britishempir empir1992 1992birthday birthdayhonour honourlist listhusband husbandreceiv receivhonour honour1984 1984birthday birthdayhonour honourlist | 157655 | Prunella Scales | English stage actresses,1932 births,English television actresses,People from Mole Valley (district),21st-century English actresses,People with Alzheimer's disease,English radio actresses,English voice actresses,Actresses from Surrey,English film actresses,British people of English descent,Commanders of the Order of the British Empire,Labour Party (UK) people,Television personalities from Surrey,Waterways campaigners of the United Kingdom,Living people,20th-century English actresses |
157655-5 | Prunella Scales
Section::::Personal life.:Other activities.
Scales is an ambassador of SOS Children's Villages charity. an international orphan charity providing homes and mothers for orphaned and abandoned children. She supports the charity's annual World Orphan Week campaign, which takes place each February.
Scales is a patron of the Lace Market Theatre in Nottingham.
In 2005, she named the P&O cruise ship, "Artemis".
section:person :personlife lifeactiv activscale scaleambassador ambassadorsos soschildren children's 'svillag villagchariti charitiintern internorphan orphanchariti charitiprovid providhome homemother motherorphan orphanabandon abandonchildren childrensupport supportchariti chariti's 'sannual annualworld worldorphan orphanweek weekcampaign campaigntake takeplace placefebruari februariscale scalepatron patronlace lacemarket markettheatr theatrnottingham nottingham2005 2005name namep pcruis cruisship ship`` ``artemi artemi'' | 157655 | Prunella Scales | English stage actresses,1932 births,English television actresses,People from Mole Valley (district),21st-century English actresses,People with Alzheimer's disease,English radio actresses,English voice actresses,Actresses from Surrey,English film actresses,British people of English descent,Commanders of the Order of the British Empire,Labour Party (UK) people,Television personalities from Surrey,Waterways campaigners of the United Kingdom,Living people,20th-century English actresses |
157655-6 | Prunella Scales
Section::::Personal life.:Later life.
In March 2014, her husband told "The Guardian" that Scales was living with Alzheimer's disease. The couple discussed practical measures in a radio programme about age and dementia on BBC Radio 4 in December 2014. In June 2018, her husband characterized her short-term memory as "no good at all", and admitted her condition "slowed them down", but "not so it closes up opportunities."
section:person :personlife lifelater laterlife lifemarch march2014 2014husband husbandtold told`` ``guardian guardian'' ''scale scalelive livealzheim alzheim's 'sdiseas diseascoupl coupldiscuss discusspractic practicmeasur measurradio radioprogramm programmage agedementia dementiabbc bbcradio radio4 4decemb decemb2014 2014june june2018 2018husband husbandcharacter charactershort-term short-termmemori memori`` ``good good'' ''admit admitcondit condit`` ``slow slow'' ''`` ``close closeopportun opportun'' | 157655 | Prunella Scales | English stage actresses,1932 births,English television actresses,People from Mole Valley (district),21st-century English actresses,People with Alzheimer's disease,English radio actresses,English voice actresses,Actresses from Surrey,English film actresses,British people of English descent,Commanders of the Order of the British Empire,Labour Party (UK) people,Television personalities from Surrey,Waterways campaigners of the United Kingdom,Living people,20th-century English actresses |
157678-1 | The Unseen (band)
The Unseen is an American punk rock band that was formed in 1993 in Hingham, Massachusetts. One of the more prominent bands to revive street punk, The Unseen were originally called The Extinct.
unseenamerican americanpunk punkrock rockband bandform form1993 1993hingham hinghammassachusett massachusettone onepromin prominband bandreviv revivstreet streetpunk punkunseen unseenorigin origincall callextinct | 157678 | The Unseen (band) | Street punk groups,American post-hardcore musical groups,A-F Records artists,Hellcat Records artists,Musical groups established in 1993,Hardcore punk groups from Massachusetts,People from Hingham, Massachusetts |
157678-2 | The Unseen (band)
Section::::History.
The Unseen formed in Hingham, Massachusetts in 1993. They then moved to Boston, Massachusetts. Along with other street punk bands, they set out to revive the English street punk sound of the 1980s.
The quintet also released a best-of compilation for the European market in June 2000 titled "", which contained two previously unreleased tracks.
The group's solid early line-up consisted of Tripp on bass and vocals, Scott on lead guitar, Civitarese on drums and vocals and Paul Russo on second guitar and vocals as well as drums and bass during live shows when the band switched instruments for certain songs. Most shows would begin with Russo and Tripp singing lead, and then the show would end with Paul playing drums and Civitarese singing lead. Russo went on to play in The Pinkerton Thugs as well as a solo project called The Strings. He is currently playing in a punk band called Broken Stereo.
Mark Unseen (real name: Mark Civitarese), who played drums on the band's first few albums, became the lead singer after Paul Russo's departure. He also formed and currently runs ADD Records. He briefly joined the Boston punk group A Global Threat as a second singer, and recorded the full-length "What The Fuck Will Change?" and "Until We Die" before deciding to concentrate on his duties with The Unseen. However shortly after his departure he and Unseen guitarist Scott along with Mike Graves and Peter Curtis (then both members of A Global Threat) formed Self Destruct. They released only one 7-inch EP entitled "Violent Affair" and played fewer than 10 shows but the musical style and lyrical content displayed on their one record would have great influence on all Unseen music to follow, helping to shape their future sound with Civitarese as lead singer. In 2010 Civitarese started a punk rock band called Ashers in and released a 7" vinyl and full-length album "Kill Your Master". More recently Civitarese joined up with various member of Boston's hardcore scene to form the hardcore/metal band "Tenebrae.".
There has been some controversy concerning the band, including allegations that in recent years they have "sold out". Also that the band should have called it quits after losing Paul Russo and therefore their strong political message (Paul Russo wrote and sang most of 'Lower Class Crucifixion', 'So This Is Freedom?', and 'The Anger and The Truth'). Most widely cited is the fact that The Unseen have produced music videos to air on commercial music video channels such as GMTV2, an avenue looked-down upon in the underground street punk scene which also goes against the political message of the first few albums. Darkbuster, a band from The Unseen's area of origin, even released a joke song called "I Hate The Unseen". Members of Darkbuster and The Unseen are friends.
They have toured Europe, North America, Australia, Japan, and Mexico with many punk bands from The Bouncing Souls and Rancid to decidedly more hardcore outfits like Hatebreed and Sick of It All. Since the departure of Russo, the band has used many replacements on tour such as members from The Virus, Strike Anywhere, and F-Minus, however, recently, on their MySpace page, The Unseen have included a fifth band member, Jonny, an ex-guitarist of A Global Threat who was in the band at the same time as Civitarese.
2006 also saw the release of Tripp's book "So This Is Readin'?", which details the life and hardships of being in an underground band with dry comedy. It started as a lengthy band history on the band's website, but after a few amusing "chapters" he was contacted by a publishing company to release it in book form.
In May 2006, The Unseen announced on their official website that they would begin writing their sixth studio full-length album during the summer of that year. The album, titled "Internal Salvation", was released on July 10, 2007. The first song released from that album is a track titled "Right Before Your Eyes" which was followed up by the track "Break Away", for which the band shot a music video. In support of the new album, the band joined the thirteenth Warped Tour in 2007 and launched a US–Canada tour in March 2008.
The Unseen remained inactive, until May 25, 2013, when they played at Punk Rock Bowling at the Fremont Country Club in Las Vegas. They have continued performing live sporadically since then.
section:histori :historiunseen unseenform formhingham hinghammassachusett massachusett1993 1993move moveboston bostonmassachusett massachusettalong alongstreet streetpunk punkband bandset setreviv revivenglish englishstreet streetpunk punksound sound1980s 1980squintet quintetalso alsoreleas releasbest-of best-ofcompil compileuropean europeanmarket marketjune june2000 2000titl titl`` ``'' ''contain containtwo twoprevious previousunreleas unreleastrack trackgroup group's 'ssolid solidearli earliline-up line-upconsist consisttripp trippbass bassvocal vocalscott scottlead leadguitar guitarcivitares civitaresdrum drumvocal vocalpaul paulrusso russosecond secondguitar guitarvocal vocalwell welldrum drumbass basslive liveshow showband bandswitch switchinstrument instrumentcertain certainsong songshow showwould wouldbegin beginrusso russotripp trippsing singlead leadshow showwould wouldend endpaul paulplay playdrum drumcivitares civitaressing singlead leadrusso russowent wentplay playpinkerton pinkertonthug thugwell wellsolo soloproject projectcall callstring stringcurrent currentplay playpunk punkband bandcall callbroken brokenstereo stereomark markunseen unseenreal realname namemark markcivitares civitaresplay playdrum drumband band's 'sfirst firstalbum albumbecam becamlead leadsinger singerpaul paulrusso russo's 'sdepartur departuralso alsoform formcurrent currentrun runadd addrecord recordbriefli brieflijoin joinboston bostonpunk punkgroup groupglobal globalthreat threatsecond secondsinger singerrecord recordfull-length full-length`` ``fuck fuckchang chang'' ''`` ``die die'' ''decid decidconcentr concentrduti dutiunseen unseenhowev howevshort shortdepartur departurunseen unseenguitarist guitaristscott scottalong alongmike mikegrave gravepeter petercurti curtimember memberglobal globalthreat threatform formself selfdestruct destructreleas releasone one7-inch 7-inchep epentitl entitl`` ``violent violentaffair affair'' ''play playfewer fewer10 10show showmusic musicstyle stylelyric lyriccontent contentdisplay displayone onerecord recordwould wouldgreat greatinfluenc influencunseen unseenmusic musicfollow followhelp helpshape shapefutur futursound soundcivitares civitareslead leadsinger singer2010 2010civitares civitaresstart startpunk punkrock rockband bandcall callasher asherreleas releas7 7'' ''vinyl vinylfull-length full-lengthalbum album`` ``kill killmaster master'' ''recent recentcivitares civitaresjoin joinvarious variousmember memberboston boston's 'shardcor hardcorscene sceneform formhardcore/met hardcore/metband band`` ``tenebrae. tenebrae.'' ''controversi controversiconcern concernband bandinclud includalleg allegrecent recentyear year`` ``sold sold'' ''also alsoband bandcall callquit quitlose losepaul paulrusso russotherefor thereforstrong strongpolit politmessag messagpaul paulrusso russowrote wrotesang sanglower lowerclass classcrucifixion crucifixionso sofreedom freedomthe theanger angertruth truthwide widecite citefact factunseen unseenproduc producmusic musicvideo videoair aircommerci commercimusic musicvideo videochannel channelgmtv2 gmtv2avenu avenulooked-down looked-downupon uponunderground undergroundstreet streetpunk punkscene scenealso alsogoe goepolit politmessag messagfirst firstalbum albumdarkbust darkbustband bandunseen unseen's 'sarea areaorigin origineven evenreleas releasjoke jokesong songcall call`` ``hate hateunseen unseen'' ''member memberdarkbust darkbustunseen unseenfriend friendtour toureurop europnorth northamerica americaaustralia australiajapan japanmexico mexicomani manipunk punkband bandbounc bouncsoul soulrancid ranciddecid decidhardcor hardcoroutfit outfitlike likehatebre hatebresick sicksinc sincdepartur departurrusso russoband banduse usemani manireplac replactour tourmember membervirus virusstrike strikeanywher anywherf-minus f-minushowev howevrecent recentmyspac myspacpage pageunseen unseeninclud includfifth fifthband bandmember memberjonni jonniex-guitarist ex-guitaristglobal globalthreat threatband bandtime timecivitares civitares2006 2006also alsosaw sawreleas releastripp tripp's 'sbook book`` ``readin readin`` ``detail detaillife lifehardship hardshipunderground undergroundband banddri dricomedi comedistart startlengthi lengthiband bandhistori historiband band's 'swebsit websitamus amus`` ``chapter chapter'' ''contact contactpublish publishcompani companireleas releasbook bookform formmay may2006 2006unseen unseenannounc announcoffici officiwebsit websitwould wouldbegin beginwrite writesixth sixthstudio studiofull-length full-lengthalbum albumsummer summeryear yearalbum albumtitl titl`` ``intern internsalvat salvat'' ''releas releasjuli juli10 102007 2007first firstsong songreleas releasalbum albumtrack tracktitl titl`` ``right righteye eye'' ''follow followtrack track`` ``break breakaway away'' ''band bandshot shotmusic musicvideo videosupport supportnew newalbum albumband bandjoin jointhirteenth thirteenthwarp warptour tour2007 2007launch launchus–canada us–canadatour tourmarch march2008 2008unseen unseenremain remaininact inactmay may25 252013 2013play playpunk punkrock rockbowl bowlfremont fremontcountri countriclub clublas lasvega vegacontinu continuperform performlive livesporad sporadsinc | 157678 | The Unseen (band) | Street punk groups,American post-hardcore musical groups,A-F Records artists,Hellcat Records artists,Musical groups established in 1993,Hardcore punk groups from Massachusetts,People from Hingham, Massachusetts |
157678-3 | The Unseen (band)
Section::::Members.
BULLET::::- Mark Civitarese (Mark Unseen) - Drums, Vocals (1993–2003), Lead Vocals (2003–present)
BULLET::::- Tripp Underwood - Bass Guitar, Vocals (1993–present)
BULLET::::- Scott Unseen - Lead Guitar, Vocals (1993–present)
BULLET::::- Pat Melzard - Drums (2003–present)
BULLET::::- Jonny Thayer- Rhythm Guitar, Backing Vocals (2006–present)
section:member :memberbullet bullet:- :-mark markcivitares civitaresmark markunseen unseendrum drumvocal vocal1993–2003 1993–2003lead leadvocal vocal2003–present 2003–presentbullet bullet:- :-tripp trippunderwood underwoodbass bassguitar guitarvocal vocal1993–present 1993–presentbullet bullet:- :-scott scottunseen unseenlead leadguitar guitarvocal vocal1993–present 1993–presentbullet bullet:- :-pat patmelzard melzarddrum drum2003–present 2003–presentbullet bullet:- :-jonni jonnithayer- thayer-rhythm rhythmguitar guitarback backvocal vocal2006–present | 157678 | The Unseen (band) | Street punk groups,American post-hardcore musical groups,A-F Records artists,Hellcat Records artists,Musical groups established in 1993,Hardcore punk groups from Massachusetts,People from Hingham, Massachusetts |
157678-4 | The Unseen (band)
Section::::Members.:Past members.
BULLET::::- Paul Russo - Vocals, Rhythm Guitar, Bass, Drums (1995-1997,1998–2003)
BULLET::::- Marc Carlson - Vocals (1993–1995)
BULLET::::- Brian "Chainsaw" Riley - Rhythm Guitar, Vocals (1997 - 1999)
BULLET::::- Ian Galloway - Rhythm Guitar, Backing Vocals **Touring (2003-2004,2006,2008)
section:member :memberpast pastmember memberbullet bullet:- :-paul paulrusso russovocal vocalrhythm rhythmguitar guitarbass bassdrum drum1995-1997,1998–2003 1995-1997,1998–2003bullet bullet:- :-marc marccarlson carlsonvocal vocal1993–1995 1993–1995bullet bullet:- :-brian brian`` ``chainsaw chainsaw'' ''riley rileyrhythm rhythmguitar guitarvocal vocal1997 19971999 1999bullet bullet:- :-ian iangalloway gallowayrhythm rhythmguitar guitarback backvocal vocaltour tour2003-2004,2006,2008 | 157678 | The Unseen (band) | Street punk groups,American post-hardcore musical groups,A-F Records artists,Hellcat Records artists,Musical groups established in 1993,Hardcore punk groups from Massachusetts,People from Hingham, Massachusetts |
157678-5 | The Unseen (band)
Section::::Studio albums.
BULLET::::- "Lower Class Crucifixion" (1997) (originally released by VML Records, re-issued in 1998 by A-F Records)
BULLET::::- "So This Is Freedom" (1999) (A-F Records)
BULLET::::- "The Anger & The Truth" (2001) (BYO Records)
BULLET::::- "Explode" (2003) (BYO Records)
BULLET::::- "State of Discontent" (2005) (Hellcat Records)
BULLET::::- "Internal Salvation" (2007) (Hellcat Records)
section:studio :studioalbum albumbullet bullet:- :-`` ``lower lowerclass classcrucifixion crucifixion'' ''1997 1997origin originreleas releasvml vmlrecord recordre-issu re-issu1998 1998a-f a-frecord recordbullet bullet:- :-`` ``freedom freedom'' ''1999 1999a-f a-frecord recordbullet bullet:- :-`` ``anger angertruth truth'' ''2001 2001byo byorecord recordbullet bullet:- :-`` ``explod explod'' ''2003 2003byo byorecord recordbullet bullet:- :-`` ``state statediscont discont'' ''2005 2005hellcat hellcatrecord recordbullet bullet:- :-`` ``intern internsalvat salvat'' ''2007 2007hellcat hellcatrecord | 157678 | The Unseen (band) | Street punk groups,American post-hardcore musical groups,A-F Records artists,Hellcat Records artists,Musical groups established in 1993,Hardcore punk groups from Massachusetts,People from Hingham, Massachusetts |
157678-6 | The Unseen (band)
Section::::Collections.
BULLET::::- "" (2000) (Step-1 Records)
BULLET::::- "The Complete Singles Collection 1994-2000" (2002) (Punkcore Records)
section:collect :collectbullet bullet:- :-`` ``'' ''2000 2000step-1 step-1record recordbullet bullet:- :-`` ``complet completsingl singlcollect collect1994-2000 1994-2000'' ''2002 2002punkcor punkcorrecord | 157678 | The Unseen (band) | Street punk groups,American post-hardcore musical groups,A-F Records artists,Hellcat Records artists,Musical groups established in 1993,Hardcore punk groups from Massachusetts,People from Hingham, Massachusetts |
157678-7 | The Unseen (band)
Section::::7" Vinyl.
BULLET::::- "Too Young To Know... Too Reckless To Care" (1995 Rodent Popsicle Records)
BULLET::::- "Protect And Serve" (1996 VML records)
BULLET::::- "Raise Your Finger Raise Your Fist" (1996 VML records)
BULLET::::- "Tom and BootBoys Split" (1998 Pogo 77 records)
BULLET::::- "Boston's Finest - Split with Toxic Narcotic" (1998 ADD/Rodent popsicle records)
section:7 :7'' ''vinyl vinylbullet bullet:- :-`` ``young youngknow know... ...reckless recklesscare care'' ''1995 1995rodent rodentpopsicl popsiclrecord recordbullet bullet:- :-`` ``protect protectserv serv'' ''1996 1996vml vmlrecord recordbullet bullet:- :-`` ``rais raisfinger fingerrais raisfist fist'' ''1996 1996vml vmlrecord recordbullet bullet:- :-`` ``tom tombootboy bootboysplit split'' ''1998 1998pogo pogo77 77record recordbullet bullet:- :-`` ``boston boston's 'sfinest finestsplit splittoxic toxicnarcot narcot'' ''1998 1998add/rod add/rodpopsicl popsiclrecord | 157678 | The Unseen (band) | Street punk groups,American post-hardcore musical groups,A-F Records artists,Hellcat Records artists,Musical groups established in 1993,Hardcore punk groups from Massachusetts,People from Hingham, Massachusetts |
157678-8 | The Unseen (band)
Section::::Music videos.
BULLET::::- '"False Hope" from Explode
BULLET::::- "Scream Out" from State of Discontent
BULLET::::- "You Can Never Go Home" from State of Discontent
BULLET::::- "Break Away" from Internal Salvation
section:music :musicvideo videobullet bullet:- :-'' ''fals falshope hope'' ''explod explodbullet bullet:- :-`` ``scream scream'' ''state statediscont discontbullet bullet:- :-`` ``never nevergo gohome home'' ''state statediscont discontbullet bullet:- :-`` ``break breakaway away'' ''intern internsalvat | 157678 | The Unseen (band) | Street punk groups,American post-hardcore musical groups,A-F Records artists,Hellcat Records artists,Musical groups established in 1993,Hardcore punk groups from Massachusetts,People from Hingham, Massachusetts |
157678-9 | The Unseen (band)
Section::::In popular culture.
BULLET::::- The Unseen are featured as background music in two skits for the TV series Jackass.
BULLET::::- Mark Unseen makes a cameo appearance in the music video "Used to Be" by fellow Boston punk band The Have Nots.
BULLET::::- Atlanta based rapper Pill wears a T-shirt for The Unseen in his music video "Glass."
BULLET::::- A poster of the band is seen in the background during one of the scenes of the movie Superbad.
section:in :inpopular popularcultur culturbullet bullet:- :-unseen unseenfeatur featurbackground backgroundmusic musictwo twoskit skittv tvseri serijackass jackassbullet bullet:- :-mark markunseen unseenmake makecameo cameoappear appearmusic musicvideo video`` ``use use'' ''fellow fellowboston bostonpunk punkband bandnot notbullet bullet:- :-atlanta atlantabase baserapper rapperpill pillwear weart-shirt t-shirtunseen unseenmusic musicvideo video`` ``glass glass'' ''bullet bullet:- :-poster posterband bandseen seenbackground backgroundone onescene scenemovi movisuperbad | 157678 | The Unseen (band) | Street punk groups,American post-hardcore musical groups,A-F Records artists,Hellcat Records artists,Musical groups established in 1993,Hardcore punk groups from Massachusetts,People from Hingham, Massachusetts |
157678-10 | The Unseen (band)
Section::::External links.
BULLET::::- Interview with Mark Unseen
BULLET::::- Interview with Mark of Unseen
BULLET::::- The Unseen on MySpace
BULLET::::- Paul Russo on Facebook
section:extern :externlink linkbullet bullet:- :-interview interviewmark markunseen unseenbullet bullet:- :-interview interviewmark markunseen unseenbullet bullet:- :-unseen unseenmyspac myspacbullet bullet:- :-paul paulrusso russofacebook | 157678 | The Unseen (band) | Street punk groups,American post-hardcore musical groups,A-F Records artists,Hellcat Records artists,Musical groups established in 1993,Hardcore punk groups from Massachusetts,People from Hingham, Massachusetts |
157668-1 | Battle of Malplaquet
The Battle of Malplaquet, one of the bloodiest of modern times, was fought near the border of France on 11 September 1709, by the forces of Louis XIV of France commanded by Marshal Villars against a Dutch-British army led by Duke of Marlborough. After a string of defeats, failure of the harvest, and the prospect of invasion, Louis XIV had appealed to French patriotism, recruited fresh soldiers, and instructed Marshal Villars to use the country's last army to give battle against Marlborough's formidable force. After a series of manoeuvres, Villars settled on a position in which both his flanks were anchored in woods. Even though the French were outnumbered, Marlborough's by-now-familiar tactics of flank attacks to draw off troops from the centre incurred serious attrition by massed French musketry and skilful use of artillery. By the time Marlborough's assault on the denuded enemy centre came, his Allied army was badly weakened, and there was no attempt at pursuit by the Allies when the French retreated in good order. The Allies lost 20,000 men, twice as many as the French, and what was regarded by contemporaries as a shockingly large number of casualties caused Britain to question the sacrifices that might be required for Marlborough's campaign to continue. The Battle of Malplaquet is often regarded as a Pyrrhic victory because its main effect was to prevent the nominal winners from invading France.
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